Dr Silumbe Michael,

Urologist,
University Teaching Hospitals,
Adult Hospital,
Department of Surgery.
 Contents
 Initial Investigations  Radiological Investigations
 Urinalysis  KUB
 Urine Culture  Urethrogram
 Urine Cytology  Intravenous Urography
 Biochemistry  Computed tomography
 Ultrasound  Magnetic resonance
 Prostate specific imaging
antigen  Positron emission
tomography
 Urodynamics  Nuclear medicine
 Initial Investigations
 Urinalysis . This is part of the physical examination and
should be performed in all urology patients
 Dip stick urine testing
 Readily available and frequently used
 Very inaccurate investigation.
 The presence of white cells and nitrites is only a
rough guide to the presence of infection
 The absence of nitrites in the urine normally is
enough to rule out an infection and the need for
urine microscopy
 Microscopy
 The urinary sediment is examined microscopically for
(1) cells, (2) casts, (3) crystals, (4) bacteria, (5) yeast,
and (6) parasites.
 Initial Investigations
 Urine culture
 Culture of a midstream specimen of urine is the only
way to identify patients whose symptoms truly result
from infection.

 Urine cytology
 Although some automation is used for the analysis of
urine cytology, the final arbiter is microscopy the
accuracy of which depends on the expertise of the
cytopathologist.
 Although alternatives to microscopy to identify
malignant cells in urine have been introduced, none
can reproduce the accuracy of the expert eye.
 Initial Investigations
 Biochemistry
 Renal function is measured better by serum creatinine
than by blood urea, the latter being influenced by the
degree of hydration and rate of metabolism.
 The extent of reserve renal function means there must
be a loss of two thirds of overall renal function before
levels of serum creatinine increase.
 Measurements of sodium, potassium, and chloride
electrolytes are the other baseline biochemical tests of
relevance.
 Initial Investigations
 Ultrasound
 Ultrasound examinations are used extensively now in
the investigation of renal, ureteric, bladder, prostatic,
and scrotal pathology.
 They may be regarded as an extension of examination.
 Whether an ultrasound examination is undertaken by
an ultrasonographer, radiologist, or urologist, the
person who undertakes the examination has the
advantage of seeing the images in real time, while the
doctor has only a few still images.
 The report thus is of prime importance, and the skill of
the person who undertakes the examination is
paramount.
 Limitations of ultrasound vary in different situations.
 Initial Investigations
 Ultrasound
 Kidney
 In the kidney, ultrasound is better than computed
tomography at identifying renal cysts, but it may fail
to distinguish between parapelvic cysts and
hydronephrosis.
 Although renal stones may give the classic appearance
of a bright echo with a black shadow behind (acoustic
shadow ), this is not always the case.
 Ultrasound is a poor way of screening for renal stones.

 Assessment of the size of a stone using ultrasound is

not very accurate.
 If the patient is obese, ultrasound becomes more
difficult.
 Initial Investigations
 Ultrasound
 Bladder
 The bladder is seen easily on transabdominal
ultrasound, and volume measurements are easy and
accurate.
 Intravesical pathology, such as tumours and stones,
can be seen best when the bladder is full.
 Prostate
 Transrectal ultrasound of the prostate has
transformed understanding of prostatic anatomy and
pathology.
 Biopsies of the prostate and placement of radioactive
seeds in brachytherapy are always undertaken with
ultrasound imaging.
 Initial Investigations
 Ultrasound
 Scrotum
 The scrotal contents are one of the few sites in urological
practice where examination is easy.
 Differentiation between the normal epididymis and testis
is accurate, and the vas can be palpated.
 In the presence of a tense hydrocele or inflammation,
examination becomes more difficult and ultrasound may
be worthwhile.
 Ureter
 Ureteric dilatation can be identified, but the cause is
much more difficult to define.
 A stone at the lower end of the ureter may be identified
by using the full bladder as an acoustic window.
 Initial Investigations
 Prostate specific antigen
 PSA is a serine protease produced by benign and
malignant cells.
 It circulates in serum in complexed and uncomplexed
forms.
 Normal PSA values are those less than 4ng/mL.
 Urodynamics
 This is the study of the lower urinary physiology.
 It’s a complex field that includes uroflowmetry,
cystometry, urethral pressure profilometry,
electromyography and pressure flow studies.
 Uroflowmetry measures urinary flow rates.
 Cystometry is generally used to evaluate bladder filling
and storage.
 Urethral pressure profilometry assesses sphincteric
function.
 Electromyography measures electrical activity of the
external sphincter.
 Pressure flow studies evaluates the relationship
between intravesical pressure and flow rate.
 Radiological Investigations
 This involves the use of radiological picture to diagnose
disease of the genitourinary system.
 These picture may be static (X ray) or dynamic
(Fluoroscopy, Image intensifier)

 Plain abdominal X rays KUB

 Used to diagnose stone disease as most stones (80%)
are radiopaque.
 Identifies curvilinear calcification of the bladder in
schistosomiasis and TB calcification of Kidney and
seminal vesicles
 Radiological Investigations
 Retrograde urethrogram
 The assessment of urethral stricture disease is by
ascending (retrograde)or descending urethrography
(antegrade).
 A small foleys cathether is inserted up to the navicular
fossa and 10 mls of contrast(urograffin) is injected.
 The contrast outlines the urethra and will show the site,
number, width and length of the stricture.
 Radiological Investigations
 Intravenous Urography
 Special Contrast enhanced x ray to evaluate the
anatomy and physiology of the genitourinary tract.
 Involves intravenous injection of 50-100ml of
radiopaque contrast e.g. Omnipaque.
 A control X-ray (KUB) is taken before contrast
Injection.
 This is followed by serial x rays at timed intervals of
immediate film, 5mins, 10mins, 30mins up to 24hrs and
post voiding films after contrast injection.
 Radiological Investigations
 Computed tomography
 This is a series of multiple x rays from a tube(gantry)
that are summated by computer to produce cross
sectional body images.
 Used in Trauma e.g. kidney, Congenital abnormalities,
Functional disease e.g. hydronephrosis with contrast
and staging of cancers.
 Radiological Investigations
 Magnetic resonance imaging
 This uses magnetic waves to create a change in
alignment of hydrogen ions in the body. This change
can be captured on computer as an image.
 Artificial electronically operated medical devices are a
contraindication to it’s use such as Pacemakers.
 Indications include staging of cancers e.g. Renal,
bladder and prostate.
 Radiological Investigations
 Positron emission tomography
 This uses a combination of radiotracers taken up by
cancer cells and CT to evaluate primary and metastatic
malignances.

 Ga 68 PSMA PET/CT is used to evaluate primary and

metastatic prostate cancer.
 Radiological Investigations
 Nuclear medicine
 Technetium 99m-diethylene triamine pentaacetic
acid (99mTc-DTPA) is primarily a glomerular filtration
agent and used to assess glomerular filtration and
differential renal function.
 Technetium 99m-dimercapto succinic acid (99mTc-
DMSA) localizes to the renal cortex with little
accumulation in the renal papilla and medulla and is
used to evaluate cortical scarring and inflammation.
 Technetium 99m-mercaptoacetyl triglycine
(99mTc-MAG3) is used to evaluate tubular function
and differential renal function.
 A bone scan evaluates cancer metastasis to the bones.
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