CAISSON

By :
Guided by, Heema Patel (CL 41)
Prof. S.C.Jain Aditi Modi (CL 31)
Aarti Patel (CL 39)
Khushbu Patel (CL 44)
Pooja Parmar (CL 37)
What is CAISSON ?
 The word caisson is derived
from the French word ‘caisse’
which means a ‘box’

 In civil engineering, a caisson

is defined as structure which
is sunk through ground or
water to exclude water and
semi fluid material during the
process of excavation and
foundation and subsequently
becomes an integral part of
the foundation.
 A caisson is a watertight retaining structure used
for example to work on the foundations of a
bridge pier, for the construction of a concrete dam
or for the repair of ships.

 These are constructed such that the water can be

pumped out, keeping the working environment
dry.
Uses of CAISSON
 Caisson is a pre-assembled structure sunken
either in ground or in water for the purposes
of further deep excavation and placing the
foundation at deeper depth where sufficient
bearing capacity is available to place the
heavy structure on top of it.

 To provide a clear and free from water,

working space all around the foundation area
during construction period.
Caisson is considered suitable only when

1) Soil in the area of foundation consists big

boulders which prohibits pile foundations.

2) When marine-underwater structure, during

the construction stage, needs protection
from floating debris like ice and other
objects.

3) When the foundation is subjected to heavy

horizontal force like scouring.
Difference between cofferdam and
Caisson

 The main difference between cofferdam and

caisson is that the cofferdam is temporary structure
while caisson is a part of a permanent structure.

 At places where cofferdam cannot be dewatered

successfully caisson is used.

 In cases where cofferdam becomes uneconomical

when plan area is small compared to depth of
water.
Materials used for construction of
Caisson

The common materials which are usually

employed for the construction of a caisson are
as follows:

1) Reinforced Cement Concrete

2) Steel
3) Cast Iron
4) Timber
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

 RCC is suitable for Caisson shoes.

 Because of its more weight, it prevents the

floating of Caisson during the early stage of
construction.

 Usually it is used as concrete filling for steel

construction.
Steel
 Steel is found to be the most suitable
material for the construction of Caisson.

 It is usually in the form of double skin of

steel plating and hollow space is then filled
with cement concrete.
Cast Iron
 It is suitable for Caisson of open-well type.

 New segments of cast iron are bolted as the

caisson sinks.

 This material is unsuitable for pneumatic caisson

as there is a risk of failure due to tension
developed by compressed air.

 Also it works out to be less economical compared

to steel and RCC.
Timber
 Timber was used as material of construction
of Caisson in early stages of development of
Caisson.

 These days the material is not adopted

because of its less bulk and risk of fire.
Types of Caisson

1) Open Caissons/Wells (open at top and

bottom)

2) Box Caissons (open at top and closed at

bottom)

3) Pneumatic Caissons (closed at top and open

at bottom)
Components of Caisson and their
functions
Components of Caisson and their
functions
Well Curb:
 A well curb is designed for supporting the weight of the
well with partial support of cutting edge at the bottom.

 The load coming on the well curb is considerably borne

by skin friction.

 It acts as the extension of cutting edge.

 It provides support to well steining.

 Cutting Edge:
 The cutting edge should have sharp angle for
knifing into the soil and strong enough to resist
various stresses induced by boulders, blows,
blasting, etc.

Top Plug:
 It is the concrete filled at the bottom of well cap or
top of filling.

 It acts as a shuttering to well cap.

 Well Steining:
 The function of well steining is to transfer the loads
from super-structure to the sub-structure.

 The thickness of steining is designed in such a way

that at all stages, the well can be sunk under its own
weight.

 It acts as Cofferdam during sinking.

 It acts as structural member to transfer load.

Wall Cap:
 Wall cap is used to transfer load from pier to wall.
 Outside diameter of  Steining thickness
well

 3.00 m.  0.75 m.
 5.00 m.  1.20 m.
 7.00 m.  2.00 m.
 Bottom Plug:

 The bottom plug of concrete is to be designed for an

upward load equal to the soil pressure minus self
weight of bottom plug and filling.

 The bottom plug is made bowl-shaped, so as to have

inverted arch action.

 As generally under-water concreting is to be done for

bottom plug, no reinforcement can be provided.

 The bottom plug transfers loads from steining to soil

below it.
Open Caisson
 It is a box type structure made from either
R.C.C. or steel. They are also known as WELLS.

 A caisson with more number of wells is

known as MONOLITHS. Top and bottom
mouths of such caisson are open.

 It is useful for foundation in river waterway

where ground is formed by silt-clay-sand-
gravel. Foundation cannot be straight placed
on such unstable soil conditions. They need to
be further excavated out.
 Open caisson are very useful when foundation are
to be placed deeper than water bed level.

 Open caisson is unsuitable where ground is

containing big boulders, trees, and other loose hard
obstacles which need to be removed before casting
foundation on top of it.

 As the depth of excavation increases, beyond 8-

10m, cost of it increases as either height of caisson
have to be increased or some protection is required
from top to avoid entry of water in to the caisson.

 After sinking of open caisson up to desired certain

depth, bottom end is sealed –plugged with concrete
, so no further sinking takes place and water will
not enter from bottom.
 It has got different shapes: circular, twin
circular, double-D, twin hexagonal, twin
octagonal, rectangle, etc.
Selection of shapes depends on:

1. Size of foundation to be cast.

2. Shape of foundation.

3. Type of soil, skin friction offered by soil.

4. Efforts –cost of sinking.

5. Towing facility available.

Circular open well :
 In case of circular shape, it has minimum
circumference length compared to other shapes
of same area, so ratio of sinking force is
minimum and hence sinking will be uniform on
all sides. Thus chances of tilting on side will be
less.

 Disadvantage of circular open caisson is that it

offers maximum resistance to flow of water,
while towing caisson vertically in water.

 Thus to keep this resistance low, the diameter is

kept minimum, narrow, in one direction and
wider in other direction.
Square shape caisson:

 In case of stiff clay it is advisable to have square

shape of caisson because stiff clay forms an
arch and develops wedge action around cutting
edge. So, cutting and penetration becomes
difficult and requires more efforts.

 In square shape, sharp corner produce a greater

scouring effect. Even skin friction is more.
Hence they are usually avoided. So corners are
chamfered.
Disadvantage of open caisson:
 Sinking of open caisson is a slow and continuous
process. All around grabbing is done and well
sinks further down because of its own weight or
with extra load kept on top for sinking purpose.

 Due continuous dredging, grabbing of soil

around caisson for sinking purpose, would lead
to subsidence of surrounding soil and hence
danger to nearby existing structure.

 Thus open caisson is preferred should be in

isolated area and away from surrounding deep
structure.
Box Caisson
 A box caisson is open at top
and closed at the bottom.

 It is made of Timber,
Reinforced Concrete or
Steel.

 This Caisson is built on land,

then launched and floated to
pier sites where it is sunk in
position.

 Such a type of caisson is

used where bearing stratum
is available at shallow depth(
5 to 7 m.), and where loads
are not very heavy.
 Closed box caissons are
used for break waters and
sea walls.

 Before placing the precast

launched caisson, a level
bearing surface is
prepared by dredging or
by the divers. Sand filling
is usually done to achieve
this.

 The launched caisson is

then sunk, by filling it with
suitable material, usually
sand or gravel.

 The top of the caisson is

sealed
Favorable conditions
 The excavation for preparing the bed of
foundation is not required or bed of foundation
can be previously prepared or a pre-installed
foundation such as a group of piles is available.

 The velocity of flow of water is slow so as to

give stability to the caisson against scour.

 The bed material is loose enough and it is

possible to dredge out this material and form a
leveled bearing surface.

 The depth of water is about 6 to 8 meters.

Pneumatic Caisson:
 Pneumatic caisson works on principle of
compressed air, hence it is named pneumatic
caisson.

 A dry and completely sealed working chamber is

created at bottom of caisson. This is done by
artificially building air tight chamber in which
pressure is built up by injecting compressed air.
This compressed air pressure compensates with
outside hydrostatic pressure.
 Technically it is advisable in the situation
where ground involved has a tendency of
collapsing and settlement.

 Under certain formation and conditions like

variable ground, big boulders at bottom,
open caisson may not be successful or
refuse further sinking and tilt. Under such
special circumstances, pneumatic caisson
may be used.
Advantages of Pneumatic Caisson:
 Total excavation, inspection, concreting is
done in dry area. Thus quality of worked can
be improved.

 Even actual load bearing test can be carried out

on that deep level, before actual placement of
foundation.

 Tilting correction is very easy by controlling the

air pressure. This can be done by varying the
air pressure.

 Total operation is smooth, safe, and of quality.

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Caisson:

 Slow rate of work progress.

 High degree of skill is required in sinking.

 Proper health controls are necessary for the laborers.

 Depth of penetration below water level is limited to 35

m.

 Since this method of foundation technique is very

costly ,it is preferred only as last resort.
Components of Pneumatic Caisson:
Material and Labour shaft:

 To separate locks(chambers), one for men and

other for material is provided in one combined
unit at the top caisson.

 These locks are smooth controlled and have

efficient entry and exit of men and materials
into the working chamber.

 In this working chamber supply of fresh air is

received from side of chamber wall. Separate
exhaust air shaft is provided to take out bad air
of human respiration.
 Separate service lines like telephone , video,
light are given in cable duct which are made
of R.C.C or steel pipe.

 Locks are kept above highest tide level +1

metre margin to keep it out of danger.

 Man material shafts are available in

dissembled condition, so assembly can be
done at site and removal is also easy.
Man lock:
 Man lock can accommodate 5 to 6 people at
a time. These are locks used by men.

 The workers use man lock for entry ,

interval and exit.

 It has double doors, specialized latch locks

and tight rubber sealing are provided all
around.
 In door, outward door are connected with
automatic arrangement so that at a time ,
both the doors can not be opened . Otherwise
this would lead to sudden and total dropping
inside air pressure which may lead to serious
accident for human beings.

 These air locks should be well ventilated and

adequately provided with suitable sanitary
arrangement.
Air Compressing Plant:
 The air compressors should be of sufficient
size and capacity with quantity of air at the
rate of 17 m3 per man per hour.

 It should obtain air from a source of clean

fresh air.
Recompression or medical chamber
 It is necessary to provide a recompression or
medical chamber just near the site of work,
especially when pressure in the chamber is
likely to exceed 1.25 kg/cm2.

 If symptoms of caisson sickness develop

suddenly in a person, he may be admitted in
this chamber and rapid compression is then
carried out, which may relive the pains of the
worker and medical treatment may then be
given, if necessary.
Pressure conditions with change in
depth of water
 The pneumatic caissons are adopted when
the depth of water is more than 12m or so.

 The maximum depth of water up to which

pneumatic caissons can be used is limited
from the consideration of health of workers.

 The air pressure corresponding to 1m of

hydrostatic head of water below the free
surface of water can be worked out from
relation:
p = (w*h)/10000
where,
p = pressure in kg/cm^2
w = density of water in kg/m^3=1000kg/m^3

h = head of water in m

Then,

P = (1000*1)/10000
P = 0.1 kg/cm^2
Now the limiting air pressure under which a
man can work is about 3.5kg/cm^2. Hence, the
maximum depth of water up to which a
pneumatic caisson can be adopted from the
health view point of the workers is about

(3.50/0.10) = 35 metres

Thus a pneumatic caisson can be used for

depths of water ranging from 12 to 35 metres.
Sinking of Caisson:
Sinking of Open caisson:
 When only lower part of caisson i.e. shoe and
cutting edge reaches to the place of erection
for downward movement, weight needs to be
increased, for that further height of wall is to
be made on top and bottom portion. For
this , either steel plates are welded or
formwork is erected and stage wise
concreting is done within the steel walls or
inside of formwork.
 Sinking has to be a continuous process and it
should never stopped, once started , all depending
work should go on throughout the day in
clockwise fashion.

 While sinking , top of wall should always be

maintained at 1 metre height from water level for
unexpected rise in water level and then folding of
caisson.

 Lightness of structure of caisson i.e. thin walls

should not be achieved at the cost of rigidity. Light
structure are easy to tow-float-and handle but
distortion is rapid and more damage during towing
and sinking.
Sinking of Box Caisson:
 The box caisson is constructed on shore,
launched and floated to the site of work.

 The box is then filled with suitable material to

effect further sinking, if necessary.

 The top is then sealed and further foundation

work is started above the water surface.
Sinking of Pneumatic Caisson:
 Towing of caisson is done horizontally to
avoid requirement of excessive draught.
Where draught is available sufficiently caisson
is towed vertically .After bringing it to the
exact position it is properly anchored from
four sides.

 While sinking, watch is maintained on

surrounding soil , if surrounding soil
collapses immediately air pressure is
controlled and sinking is suspended.
 In case of loose soil, pre grouting is done to
avoid sucking of compressed air by soil. This
will stabilize the caisson on its position .

 While sinking, air pressure has to be

regulated at every stage. Air pressure
controls the rate of sinking and verticality.
More air makes structure light in weight so it
will float up , so more sinking pressure would
be required.

 Sinking in permeable ground is difficult

because its collapses and gives away.
Tilting of Caisson
 Sometimes a caisson sinks
more on one side than the
other. This is known as
tilting of caissons and it is
mainly due to the
following two reasons:

 Unequal dredging

 Non-uniform bearing power of

soil.

 The various methods employed

to bring a tilted caisson in
position are as follows:
 1. In this method, the tilted caisson is fixed with an
already constructed caisson as shown in figure.

 A ring beam is provided on the top of the tilted

caisson.

 By the hook and cable arrangement, a pull is applied

by tackle and winch gear which brings the tilted
caisson in vertical position.

 The accuracy required in verticality is to the extent of

about 1 mm and it is achieved by sensitive
instruments and checked by different persons.

 The stress developed during pulling operations

should be worked out accurately to see that the
existing caisson will not tilt itself during pulling
operations. The process is carried out very slowly.
2. If the caisson has tilted in a direction
perpendicular to the line joining it with existing
caisson, the above method cannot be applied.

 In such cases, the pulling machinery is brought on

barges and tractors or such substances on shores
act as fixes caissons.

3. In this method, dredging is done only near the

portion which has tilted.

 The portion which is higher than the other is

termed as tilted portion or tilted edge.

 Extreme care should be taken to do the dredging

near the tilted edge. Otherwise the caisson may
turn up suddenly.
4. In this method,
heavy loads are
placed on the tilted
edge as shown in
figure.

 The moment
caused by heavy
loads brings the
caisson in true
position.
5. In this method, explosives are used to
remove obstacles from the tilted edge.

 The blow created by the explosives removes

any obstacles under the tilted edge and then
the caisson can be brought in true position.

 This is a risky method and it is to be

circumstances adopted only under
exceptional.
Caisson Sickness:
 In the early stages of the beginning of use of
compressed air in caisson, it was observed that
the workers suffered a certain type of disease,
when they returned to atmospheric pressure after
working under the compressed air. This is known
as ‘Caisson sickness’.

 The main symptoms of the disease are dizziness,

double vision, headache, trouble in speaking, pain
in legs, etc.

 The disease resulted in the loss of consciousness,

paralysis or sometimes even death.
Causes of Caisson sickness:

 The atmosphere consists of one part of oxygen

to four parts of nitrogen by volume. Now, when a
person is subjected to compressed air, nitrogen
is also absorbed along with oxygen by the
tissue-fluids of the person. The oxygen is
dissolved in blood, while nitrogen remains in
suspension, as it is not soluble in blood.

 When the pressure of air is reduced, the nitrogen

will form bubbles within the tissue-fluids and
these bubbles are blocked in joints, and cause
bends or violent pains in the joints. If they are
developed in spinal cord or heart, it will result in
paralysis or death respectively.
Precautions:
Shift and working period:
 A person should not be employed for more than one
shift in a day and duration of the shift should not
exceed 12 hours.

 During the shift also, the person should not be

employed to work for more than two working periods.

Interval between working periods:

 When there are two working periods in a shift, an
interval is kept between them depending upon the
pressure in the working chamber.
 Temperature in the working chamber:
 It is desirable to maintain a temperature of about 25O C in
the working chamber.

 If the temperature is more than this, it is likely to decrease

the efficiency of the workers.

 Every working chamber should be provided with a wet bulb

thermometer.

Physical Examination of workers:

 The person should be employed after physically examined
by the physician.

 Persons with strong hearts, relatively normal blood pressure

and good circulation should be employed on the work.
 The newly appointed worker should be allowed to
work only for one-half the working period in a shift
and then this period may be increased gradually.

 The workers should be sent every month for a

complete checkup by the physician.

Rate of compression and

decompression:
 The rate of compression, i.e. in the first minute the
pressure is increased to about 0.35 kg/cm2 and
then it is about 0.7 kg/cm2 per minute.

 The stage decompression is preferred to the

uniform rate of decompression.
 In the stage decompression, the pressure is
suddenly reduced in the first few minutes and
then it is reduced slowly to approach the
atmospheric pressure.
 Miscellaneous:
 In addition to the above mentioned
precautions, the following steps may be taken
to increase the resistance against caisson
sickness:

 Use of alcoholic drinks should be prohibited.

 The workers should wear warm clothes, while

working in the working chamber.

 The worker should take enough meal before

the shift starts and suitable refreshments
should be served to them during interval
between working periods.