Operational Amplifiers

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Figure 2.2 The op amp shown connected to dc power supplies.
 1. Infinite input impedance
2. Zero output impedance
3. Zero common-mode gain or
infinite common-mode rejection
4. Infinite open-loop gain A
5. Infinite bandwidth 3
Figure 2.3 Equivalent circuit of the ideal op amp.
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Figure 2.4 Representation of the signal sources v1 and v2 in terms of their differential and common-mode components.
 1. Express v3 in terms of v1 and v2.
2. Find open loop gain ‘A’ if Gm = 10mA/V, R=10kΩ and μ=100.

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Figure E2.3
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Figure 2.5 The inverting closed-loop configuration.
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Figure 2.6 Analysis of the inverting configuration. The circled numbers indicate the order of the analysis steps.
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 Effect of Finite Open-loop Gain

Input Output Resistances

Ro = 0

Figure 2.7 Analysis of the inverting configuration taking into account the finite open-loop gain of the op amp.
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Figure 2.8 Circuit for Example 2.2. The circled numbers indicate the sequence of the steps in the analysis.
 Current Amplifier

v1  0
i2  i1
R2
R3 k

i3  ki1
i4  i1  i3
i4  (1  k )i1
1

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Figure 2.9 A current amplifier based on the circuit of Fig. 2.8. The amplifier delivers its output current to R4. It has a current gain of (1 + R2/R3), a zero
input resistance, and an infinite output resistance. The load (R4), however, must be floating (i.e., neither of its two terminals can be connected to ground).
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For the circuit in Fig.E2.6 determine the values of v1 , i1 , i2 , vO , iL and iO. Also
determine the voltage gain vO/vI, current gain iL/iI and power gain PO/PI.

Figure E2.6

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 Find the value of input resistance Ri, the transresistance Rm and the output
resistance Ro of the transresistance amplifier. If the signal source shown in Fig.
E2.5b is connected to the input of the amplifier, find its output voltage.

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Figure E2.5
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Figure 2.10 A weighted summer.

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Figure 2.11 A weighted summer capable of implementing summing coefficients of both signs.
 Quiz# 7 ( 06 Dec 2010 )
1.Describe the characteristics of an ideal Op Amp and draw its equivalent
circuit.
2.Derive the equation for overall gain of this circuit.

Assignment# 7 ( 06 Dec 2010 )

In Fig 2.8, R2 is 950kOhms. Select values of other resistors to get a
gain of 120. Reduce value of R2 by 10kOhms for each roll number.

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Figure 2.12 The noninverting configuration.
Figure 2.13 Analysis of the noninverting circuit. The sequence of the steps in the analysis is indicated by the circled numbers.
Figure 2.14 (a) The unity-gain buffer or follower amplifier. (b) Its equivalent circuit model.
Figure E2.13
Find vo

Figure E2.9
 Rin   Rout  0

Figure 2.12 The noninverting configuration.

Figure 2.13 Analysis of the noninverting circuit. The sequence of the steps in the analysis is indicated by the circled numbers.
 vo  R2  vo 
   v I       v I   vo
 A  R1  A 

 vo   R2 
 vI      1  vo  R2 
 A   R1    1
vo  R1 

 R2  vo  R2  vI  1  R2  
vI    1     1  vo 1     1 
 R1  A  R1   A R 
  1 
 R2  vo  R2 
vI    1  vo     1
 R1  A  R1  
 R2   1  R2  
vI    1  vo 1     1 
 R1   A  R1  
Figure 2.17 Application of superposition to the analysis of the circuit of Fig. 2.16.
 for

Figure 2.16 A difference amplifier.

Figure 2.18 Analysis of the difference amplifier to determine its common-mode gain Acm ; vO / vIcm.
Figure 2.19 Finding the input resistance of the difference amplifier for the case R3 = R1 and R4 = R2.
1%
1%
0.1%
0.1%
 1. Common mode gain
2. Matching of A1 and A2
3. Variable diff gain

Figure 2.20 A popular circuit for an instrumentation amplifier: (a) Initial approach to the circuit; (b) The circuit in (a)
with the connection between node X and ground removed and the two resistors R1 and R1 lumped together. This simple
wiring change dramatically improves performance; (c) Analysis of the circuit in‘ (b) assuming ideal op amps.
 1. Common mode gain
2. Matching of A1 and A2
3. Variable diff gain
Figure 2.21 To make the gain of the circuit in Fig. 2.20(b) variable, 2R1 is implemented as the series combination of a
fixed resistor R1f and a variable resistor R1v. Resistor R1f ensures that the maximum available gain is limited.
Figure 2.22 Open-loop gain of a typical general-purpose internally compensated op amp.
 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifier

dc gain?

For non-inverting

dc gain?
 Output Voltage Saturation and Current Limits

Figure 2.25 (a) A noninverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V designed using an op amp that saturates at ±13-
V output voltage and has ±20-mA output current limits. (b) When the input sine wave has a peak of 1.5 V, the output is
clipped off at ±13 V.
 Slew Rate (V/μs)

Figure 2.26 (a) Unity-gain follower. (b) Input step waveform. (c) Linearly rising output waveform obtained when the amplifier is slew-rate limited. (d)
Exponentially rising output waveform obtained when V is sufficiently small so that the initial slope (ωtV) is smaller than or equal to SR.
Figure 2.22 Open-loop gain of a typical general-purpose internally compensated op amp.
 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifier

dc gain?

For non-inverting

dc gain?
 Output Voltage Saturation and Current Limits

Figure 2.25 (a) A noninverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V designed using an op amp that saturates at ±13-
V output voltage and has ±20-mA output current limits. (b) When the input sine wave has a peak of 1.5 V, the output is
clipped off at ±13 V.
 Slew Rate (V/μs)

Figure 2.26 (a) Unity-gain follower. (b) Input step waveform. (c) Linearly rising output waveform obtained when the amplifier is slew-rate limited. (d)
Exponentially rising output waveform obtained when V is sufficiently small so that the initial slope (ωtV) is smaller than or equal to SR.
Full Power Bandwidth

Full Power Bandwidth

Figure 2.27 Effect of slew-rate limiting on output sinusoidal waveforms.

 Quiz # 8 ( 27 Dec 2010 )
Replace 2R1 with a fixed resistor and a potentiometer. Calculate values of
these resistors to get variable gain from 5 tp 1000 in the given circuit.

Assignment # 8 Exercise 2.15 (page 85)

R1 = 5 kΩ and R2 = 220 kΩ. Increase R2 by 10 kΩ for each roll number.
 Output Voltage Saturation and Current Limits

Figure 2.25 (a) A noninverting amplifier with a nominal gain of 10 V/V designed using an op amp that saturates at ±13-
V output voltage and has ±20-mA output current limits. (b) When the input sine wave has a peak of 1.5 V, the output is
clipped off at ±13 V.
 Slew Rate (V/μs)

Figure 2.26 (a) Unity-gain follower. (b) Input step waveform. (c) Linearly rising output waveform obtained when the amplifier is slew-rate limited. (d)
Exponentially rising output waveform obtained when V is sufficiently small so that the initial slope (ωtV) is smaller than or equal to SR.
Full Power Bandwidth

Full Power Bandwidth

Figure 2.27 Effect of slew-rate limiting on output sinusoidal waveforms.

 DC IMPERFECTIONS
a. Offset Voltage

Figure 2.28 Circuit model for an op amp with input offset voltage VOS. Figure E2.23 Transfer characteristic of an op amp with VOS = 5
mV.
Figure 2.29 Evaluating the output dc offset voltage due to VOS in a closed-loop
amplifier.
Figure 2.30 The output dc offset voltage of an op amp can be trimmed to zero by connecting a potentiometer to the two
offset-nulling terminals. The wiper of the potentiometer is connected to the negative supply of the op amp.
Figure 2.31 (a) A capacitively coupled inverting amplifier, and (b) the equivalent circuit for determining its dc output offset voltage VO.
 DC IMPERFECTIONS
b. Input Bias and Offset Currents

Input Bias Current

Input Offset Current

Figure 2.32 The op-amp input bias currents represented by two current sources IB1 and IB2.
Figure 2.33 Analysis of the closed-loop amplifier, taking into account the input bias currents.
 Very small as compared
to
Figure 2.34 Reducing the effect of the input bias currents by introducing a resistor R3.
Figure 2.35 In an ac-coupled amplifier the dc resistance seen by Figure 2.36 Illustrating the need for a continuous dc path for each of the op-amp
the inverting terminal is R2; hence R3 is chosen equal to R2. input terminals. Specifically, note that the amplifier will not work without resistor
 Integrators and Differentiators

Figure 2.37 The inverting configuration with general Figure 2.38 Circuit for Example 2.6.
impedances in the feedback and the feed-in paths.
Figure 2.39 (a) The Miller or inverting integrator. (b) Frequency response of the integrator.
Figure 2.40 Determining the effect of the op-amp input offset voltage VOS on the Miller integrator circuit. Note that since
the output rises with time, the op amp eventually saturates.
Figure 2.41 Effect of the op-amp input bias and offset currents on the performance of the Miller integrator circuit.
Figure 2.42 The Miller integrator with a large resistance RF connected in parallel with C in order to provide negative feedback and hence finite
gain at dc.
Figure 2.44 (a) A differentiator. (b) Frequency response of a differentiator with a time-constant CR.
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