Group dynamics

One of the truly remarkable things

about work groups is that they can
make
2+2 = 5.
Of course, they also have the
capability of making
2+2 = 3.

( The behavior of individuals in group

is something more than the sum total
of each acting in his or her own way.)
 Group dynamics
Groups are one of the most "human" things
about us. We are social animals.

The impact of groups is present even when

we are alone:

•In our numerous "shoulds," "oughts," and

"to-do" lists
•In our self-identities and self-descriptions
•In evaluating our performance
•Often in our mood states
•In literally setting parameters on how we
perceive and conceptualize
 Group dynamics
Not all collections of individuals are
groups. The phenomena of cohorts,
aggregates and groups are often treated
interchangeably. This is a mistake because
groups have properties the other two
entities do not.
COHORT
Members of a cohort share at least one
common characteristic or experience.
Demographers usually reserve the term for
people who have a common experience at
a singular point in time. Eg - a birth cohort
("generation") :
 Group dynamics
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are collections of
individuals who are physically
proximate at the same time, such as
several individuals in the elevators or
a crowd at an football game .
Studies of these events often
reference the arousing effects of
others, the apparent normlessness of
crowds, and the "confrontational
nature" of the events (i.e.,
spontaneous, unplanned, and
 Group dynamics
NOW...WHAT IS A GROUP?
Here are the keys to defining a
group-
1. members have a self-definition as
a group member.
2. members are identified by others.
3. Interdependent [common] goals
that require coordination.
4. Cohesiveness
5. "Normative expectations", i.e.,
rules regulating member
behaviour or how members
 Group dynamics
Why people join groups
• Security- feel stronger, reduce self doubts,
resistance to threats.
• Status- inclusion in group provides
recognition and status.
• Self esteem- feeling of worth, fulfills need for
competence and growth.
• Affiliation- interaction, fulfills need for
friendship and social relations.
• Power- can influence, provide moral support.
• Goal achievement- opportunity to pool
talent, knowledge.
 Group dynamics
Classifying Groups
• Formal Group – Those defined by
the organization's structure with
designated work assignments
establishing tasks.
• Informal Groups – Alliances that
are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined.
Natural formations in the work
environment that appear in
response to the need for social
contact.
 Group dynamics
• Command Group – Determined by the
organization chart.
• Task Group – Also organizationally
determined, representing those
working together to complete a job
task.
• Interest group – People not necessarily
aligned into common command or task
groups who affiliate to attain a specific
objective.
• Friendship Group – Social alliances
frequently extending outside work
 WORK GROUP BEHAVIOUR
Group behaviour model

Group Group task

member
resources
External Performance
conditions Group and
imposed processes satisfaction
on the group

Group structure
 Group behaviour
External Conditions-
• Organisation strategy
• Authority structure
• Formal regulations
• Organisational resources
• Personnel selection process
• Performance evaluation and reward
system
• Organisational culture
• Physical work setting
 Group behaviour
Group member Resources-
Group’s potential level of performance,
to a large extent depends on the
resources the members individually
bring to the group.
• Abilities – Sets the parameters for what
members can do and how effectively
they will perform in a group.
• Personal Characteristics – The
personality traits affect group
performance by strongly influencing
how the individual will interact with
other group members.
 Group behaviour
Group Structure-
• Formal leadership
• Roles – Identity, Perception, Expectation,
Conflict.
• Norms - Conformity
• Size – Social Loafing
• Composition
 Group dynamics
Kurt Lewin used the term Group Dynamics to
stress the powerful impact of complex social
processes on the group members.
Topics studied in G.D;
• Introduction to group dynamics, research
methods and different approaches to G.D.
• Group formation and development -
structure and its impact, Role, Norms,
Leadership, communication, development
and cohesion.
• Group influence and interaction – conformity,
power and conflict.
• Group performance – decision making, group
and change.
 Group formation &
development
Joining groups nAffiliation, nIntimacy,
npower
William C Schutz ( Fundamental Relations
Orientation theory) FIRO
Inclusion – desire to be a part and be accepted
by the group.
Control – desire to guide the group, maintain
power needs.
Affection – desire to experience warm, positive
relation.
It affects group behaviour in two ways –
1. How we treat other people
 Group formation &
development
Factors which contribute for group formation –
• Groups who express similar attitude and
values.
• Group members who respond positively.
• Group members who are attractive and
competent.
Principles for group formation-
1. SIMILARITY PRINCIPLE – People tend to
join groups in which members are similar to
us in some way.
• People with same values and attitudes there
is assurance, safety and it is rewarding.
• Similarity serves as a signal to suggest that
 Group formation &
development
2. COMPLEMENTARITY PRINCIPLE – Sometimes we
prefer groups / company of people who are
dissimilar to us. We are attracted to people who
possesses characteristics that complement our own
personal characteristics.
• Varied capability, values, attitudes bring solidarity
and respect.
• Cohesiveness is higher than in similar group.
• They tend to perform in problem situations more
effectively.
3. RECIPROCITY PRINCIPLE - “ I would join a group
that would want me as a member.”
When someone else accepts and approves of us,
give friendly advice, compliments and admires us,
we generally respond by liking them in turn.
 Group formation &
development

4. THE MINIMAX PRINCIPLE - people join groups

and remain in groups that provide them with the
maximum number of valued rewards with few cost.
REWARDS – acceptance, assistance in reaching
personal goals. Social support and exposure to new
ideas, opportunity to interact.
COST – time, money and energy.
 Group formation &
development
GROUP SOCIALISATION -
A person’s passage through a group depends on two
processes- Evaluation and commitment.
Evaluation – Balance of rewards and cost.
Commitment – “enduring adherence” of relationship
between individuals and the group.

Individual members evaluated the group and develops

some degree of commitment to it and the group also
evaluates the individual and develops some degree
of commitment to him/her.
 Group formation &
development
STAGES OF SOCIALISATION -

CONVERGENCE
T NE MTI MMOC

OR
EXIT
 Group structure
Norms set the standards for the group.
• Descriptive norms define what most people
do, feel or think in a group.
• Injunctive norms differentiate between
desirable and undesirable actions.
Roles specify the types of behaviors expected of
individuals who occupy particular positions
within the group.
• Task roles – Initiator, contributor, information
seeker, opinion seeker, coordinator,
evaluator, recorder.
• Socio emotional roles – encourager,
compromiser,
 Group formation &
development

• Individual roles- Aggressor, Dominator,

evader or self confessor, help seeker .
Role ambiguity, role conflict – Inter role
conflict
Intra role conflict.
 Group formation &
development
SOCIOMETRY –
Jacob L. Moreno called the technique for measuring the
relations between group members as sociometry.
The diagram to represent this relationship is called the
Sociogram.

• Helps to understand the configuration of the group

and the position of each member.
• Identifies the “stars” the highly popular group
member.
• “rejected” member who are disliked by the group
members.
• “ isolates” who are infrequently chosen.
• “pairs” who have reciprocal bond.
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

When joining a group, or participating in its

activities, individuals may engage in a cost-
benefit analysis, assessing the efforts they
put in to the group and the rewards they
receive in return.
George Homan's theory of exchange in groups
emphasized "minimax" principles, i.e.,
minimal costs and maximum rewards.
Homans believed that if costs came to be
greater than rewards, or even if rewards
dropped or costs increased, individuals would
leave the group.
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
But, the issue becomes, where do you go? Do
you have choices?
Thibaut and Kelley's interdependence theory directly
addresses the issue of alternatives.
Individuals have an established comparison level of
expectations for their interactions, rewards and costs
associated with groups.
This CL comes from previous experiences, the
experiences of similar others, cultural expectations, or
perhaps the individual's level of self-esteem.
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
Thibaut and Kelley also postulate a comparison level
for alternatives: CLalt is the least satisfying
alternative available to the individual. Individuals
compare their CL with their CLalt to decide whether
to leave or stay in a relationship or join a new group.
Of course, most situations are multi-dimensional and
the prospective member of a group, or someone
deciding to leave a group, typically considers a range
of alternatives in each dimension. All together,
Thibaut and Kelley believe that if:
CL > CLalt     the individual will remain in the
current group
CL < CLalt     the individual will leave the
current group
CL = CLalt     the choice cannot be predicted
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
Sociometric structure shows the development of
patterns of liking and disliking in a group.
FRITZ HEIDER’S BALANCE THEORY:
WHY Most groups tend towards reciprocity ( pairs),
transivity( A----B, B-----C, so A----C),
homophily(clusters).
• Attraction of relations in groups are balanced when
they fit together to form a coherent, unified whole.
•Conversely, attraction of groups are unbalanced if
they contain negative relations.
•Unbalanced sociometric structure generate tension
and this motivates ( drives) to correct the imbalance.
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

• According to Heider this restoration of balance

can be achieved through either psychological
changes in the individual members or
interpersonal changes in the group.
How??
1. Through intentional transivity.
2. Group members who are generally disliked are
isolated.
3. Large groups tend to assimilate well balanced
cliques.
 GROUP FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

Bruce W Tuckman is a respected educational

psychologist who first described the four stages
of group development in 1965. Looking at the
behaviour of small groups in a variety of
environments, he recognised the distinct phases
they go through, and suggested they need to
experience all four stages before they achieve
maximum effectiveness.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Forming: The First Stage.
It takes time for any new team to get its act
together. In this stage, there's lots of exploration
as group members get to know one another.
Characteristics of the Forming Stage
• Exploration
• Focus on similarities and differences
• First impressions are key
• Confusion/anxiety
• Lower productivity
• Issues of inclusion, leadership, developing trust
• Open communication is a must
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Storming: The Second Stage.

This stage is characterized by a bid for power. Each
group member is wondering whether or not he or
she will be respected and this plays out in
competition, tension and disunity.
Characteristics of the Storming Stage
• Competition
• Strained relationships
• Leader is challenged
• Tension and disunity
• Differences are uncomfortable
• Issues of autonomy vs. control, support vs.
competition, influence, decision-making
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Norming: The Third Stage

In the norming stage, the group has begun to be
effective. The focus of each individual is on "how
can I help the group?" Because of this, there is
increased cohesion and more collaboration.
Characteristics of the Norming Stage
• Increased cohesion
• More collaboration
• Emerging trust
• Appreciation of differences
• Issues of strengthening relationships, open
communication, positive/constructive feedback
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Performing: The Fourth Stage
Many groups never reach the performing stage. At
this point, the group is asking "How can we do
our best?" and is filled with enthusiasm and
focused on creative problem solving.
Characteristics of the Performing Stage
• You have to go through the other stages to get
here
• Harmony
• Productivity
• Problem-solving
• Shared and participative leadership
• Full development of potential
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Adjourning: The Fifth Stage

This is about completion and disengagement, both
from the tasks and the group members. 
Individuals will be proud of having achieved
much and glad to have been part of such an
enjoyable group.  They need to recognise what
they've done, and consciously move on.  Some
authors describe stage 5 as "Deforming and
Mourning", recognising the sense of loss felt by
group members.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Tubbs's Small Group Development Theory
Orientation In this stage, group members get to know each
other, they start to talk about the problem, and they
examine the limitations and opportunities of the project.

Conflict Conflict is a necessary part of a group's development.

Conflict allows the group to evaluate ideas and it helps the
group avoid conformity and groupthink.

Consensus Conflict ends in the consensus stage, when group

members compromise, select ideas, and agree on
alternatives.

Closure In this stage, the final result is announced and group

members reaffirm their support of the decision.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Poole's Small Group Development Theory

Task track Marshall Scott Poole argued that groups jump back
and forth between three tracks: task, topic, and relation.
The three tracks can be compared to the intertwined
strands of a rope. The task track concerns the process by
which the group accomplishes its goals.

Topic track The topic track concerns the specific item the
group is discussing at the time.

Relation track The relation track deals with the interpersonal

relationships between the group members. At times, the
group may stop its work on the task and work instead on
its relationships. When the group reaches consensus on all
three tracks at once, it can proceed in a more unified
manner as the other models illustrate.

Breakpoints Breakpoints occur when a group switches from

one track to another. Shifts in the conversation,
adjournment, or postponement are examples of
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

In the real world, groups are often forming and

changing, and each time that happens, they can
move to a different Tuckman Stage.  A group
might be happily Norming or Performing, but a
new member might force them back into
Storming. Seasoned leaders will be ready for this,
and will help the group get back to Performing as
quickly as possible.
Many theorists believe that groups repeatedly cycle
through stages during their lifetime rather than
moving through each stage once.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Bale’s EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF GROUP
DEVELOPMENT.

It is based on the premise that group members strive

to maintain a balance between two important
aspects –
• Accomplishing the task.
• Enhancing the quality of the interpersonal
relationships within the group.
The group tends to oscillate between the two
concerns i.e., achieving high social cohesiveness
and also moving towards work centered
cohesiveness.
The tendency of mature groups to cycle back and
forth between the stages is explained in this
model.
PUNTUATED EQUILIBRIUM – changes precipitated by
 GROUP COHESIVENESS

Cohesiveness is central to the study of groups.

Typically, "cohesion" implies an esprit de corps,
solidarity, or “we-feeling”.
Dorwin Cartwright defined it as “the degree to which
members of the group desire to remain in the
group”
Bernice Lott defined it as “the number and strength
of mutual positive attitudes among the
members of a group”.
Leon Festinger defined cohesion as “the resultant of
all the forces acting on the member to remain in
the group”.
 GROUP COHESIVENESS
Group cohesion-
• It is a binding force- It keeps the intact by pushing
members together and countering forces that push
them apart.
• It is group unity- Members show signs of a shared
social identity, a strong sense of belonging. They
are enthusiastic about the group and are willing to
sacrifice their individual desires for the good of the
group.
• It is attraction- The attraction is not towards
individual members of the group but
depersonalized social attraction.
• It is teamwork- Members pursue their goals with
great intensity. It is characterized by
interdependence, member stability, feeling of
responsibility for the group’s outcome, reduced
 WHAT PROMOTES GROUP
COHESIVENESS
INTERPERSONAL SOURCES of group cohesion depend on the
characteristics of individual members. The group is
cohesive because members are attracted to one another.
Some major sources include:
Member similarity
• Demographic, including life cycle
• Attitudes, values, and beliefs
• Situational ( compatriots abroad or Americans in Paris)
Member attractiveness
• Sources, e.g., prestige or social class
• Physical attractiveness ( high school kid cliques.)
• Pleasant, supportive, other warm personal characteristics
Member acceptance. Members make it clear that they like the
recruits (and other members).
 WHAT PROMOTES GROUP COHESIVENESS
Spatial contiguity is important because people interact more with
contiguous individuals. By seeing the same people in the
elevator every day, standing in line in the cafeteria, or
always being seated next to the same person in the
alphabet, individuals become familiar to us. we like familiar
objects more (even familiar nonsense syllables) than
unfamiliar ones.

STRUCTURAL SOURCES
This centres more around attraction to the group or aspects
related to group tasks than they do around characteristics of
individual members.
Group leaders can influence structural sources of cohesion more
than they can interpersonal sources. Leaders can be creative
with the nature of the task or generate a group enemy.
Structural sources of cohesion may emphasize collective or
group identity.
 WHAT PROMOTES GROUP COHESIVENESS
Arousal
Emotional arousal (and its physiological components) tends to
strengthen affiliative needs. Group symbols or music that groups
invoke may increase emotional arousal. So does a common enemy.

Interdependent goals
Think "jigsaw puzzle classroom." Everyone must contribute in a
specialized division of labor in order for the group to achieve its
goals. Everyone has a "specialized piece of the puzzle."

Common goals
Group goals coincide with member goals (e.g., Organisation wants to
achieve 200 crore mark; a class wants to win the joint science fair
project), thereby attracting members.
Group goals may include a "common enemy" or a common enemy may
arise after individuals have been members for some time. Research
shows that the presence of a group enemy strengths in-group
identification and makes a collective identity more salient.
Achieving group goals lends a sense of accomplishment. All else equal,
people are more satisfied with membership in successful than in
unsuccessful groups.
 CONSEQUENCES OF COHESIVENESS

COHESION OUTCOMES: THE "GOOD STUFF"

• Member satisfaction and adjustment – A cohesive group

creates a healthier workplace at least at the psychological
level. Existence of positivity makes people experience less
anxiety.

• Acceptability and influence – Members in cohesive groups

more readily accept the group goals, decisions and norms.
Even if there is initial "storming" and conflict, if the group
"gels," a "norming" period follows and members conform.
However, external pressures are greater too. Cohesive
groups put more pressure on deviants to conform to group
norms than less cohesive groups do. Members influence
each other and emphasize the value of cooperation and
agreement.

• Group performance and productivity – High cohesive groups

are more effective. Cohesiveness is both a cause and
outcome of high productivity. Successful performance leads
 CONSEQUENCES OF COHESIVENESS
COHESION OUTCOMES: THE "BAD STUFF“

• Cohesive groups are more cruel to deviants. Scapegoating,

hostility and aggression are more common toward deviants
in higher cohesion groups.

• Individual identity may be more stifled and restricted in

cohesive groups. If you try to change aspects of your
personal identity--even in a positive direction, you may find
to your surprise that other group members ignore, criticize
or otherwise undermine your attempts at improvement.

• If group goals diverge from organizational goals, not only

may the group as a whole become less productive (by
organizational standards), it may also reject members who
are productive by organizational standards (e.g., ostracizing
the "class brain" or "binging" workers viewed as
"overproductive.")

• Group goals may be damaging, even deadly, to individual

 WORK TEAMS
WORK TEAMS ARE cross functional, multi skilled, and self
directed group of employees responsible for its own
assignments, cost control, goals, quality control,
work orders, work scheduling, and other such duties and
tasks.

Work teams are most useful where job content changes

frequently and employees with limited skills and a specific
set of duties are unable to cope.

The purpose of assembling a team is to accomplish bigger

goals than any that would be possible for the individual
working alone.

The aim and purpose of a team is to perform, get results and

achieve victory. The very best managers are those who
can gather together a group of individuals and mould
them into a team.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUP & TEAM
• UNDERSTANDING
Group – members think they are grouped together
administratively.
Team - members recognise their independence and understand
both personal and team goals are best accomplished with
mutual support.
• OWNERSHIP
Group - members tend to focus on themselves because they are
not sufficiently involved in planning the unit's objectives.
Team - members feel a sense of ownership for their jobs and
unit, because they are committed to values based common
goals that they helped establish.
• CREATIVITY AND CONTRIBUTION
Group - In a group, members are told what to do rather than
being asked what the best approach would be.  Suggestions
and creativity are not encouraged.
Team - members contribute to the organisation's success by
applying their unique talents, knowledge and creativity to
team objectives.
• TRUST
Group - In a group, members distrust the motives of colleagues
because they do not understand the role of other members.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUP & TEAM
• PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
Group – In a group, members receive good training but are
limited in applying it to the job by the manager or other
group members.
Team – In a team, members are encouraged to continually
develop skills and apply what they learn on the job.  They
perceive they have the support of the team.
• CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Group -In a group, members find themselves in conflict situations
they do not know how to resolve. They resolve conflict only
in crisis situation. 
Team – In a team, members realise conflict as an opportunity for
new ideas and creativity.
• PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING
Group – Conformity often appears more important than positive
results.  Win/lose situations are common. 
Team -In a team, members participate in decisions. Positive
win/win results are the goal at all times.
• CLEAR LEADERSHIP
Group – Leaders do not walk the talk and tend to lead from
behind a desk.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUP & TEAM

• COMMITMENT
Group – In a group, members are uncommitted towards
excellence and personal pride.  Performance levels tend to
be mediocre.  Staff turnover is high because talented
individuals quickly recognise that
(a) personal expectations are not being fulfilled
(b) they are not learning and growing from others and
(c) they are not working with the best people.

Team - In a team, only those committed to excellence are hired. 

Prospective team members are queuing at the door to be
recruited on the basis of their high levels of hard and soft
skill sets.  Everyone works together in a harmonious
environment.
 EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAM
Jazz pianist Monty Alexander described, there are 6 essentials to
any effective team: 1) willing support; 2) virtuosity; 3)
optimism; 4) mutual respect; 5) good will; and 6) making it
feel good.

1. Willing Support
To be willing to contribute, team members must feel appreciated
for what they can do best and what they enjoy doing most.
This could be done by aligning talents to tasks.
People’s capacity and creativity flow much more readily and
smoothly if they are enjoying what they are doing.

2. Virtuosity
Team members must also be given the opportunities and
resources to develop their skills and master the
competencies required to do their jobs.
The other form of virtuosity required in great teams is that of
leaders. They must be able to do their work through other
people, not overfunction in ways that encourage others to
underfunction.
 EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAM
3. Optimism
Complexity and change can be confusing and frustrating. Team
members easily get stuck in negativity, creating a recurring
cycle of criticism and complaint.
Focusing attention from the very beginning of a project on the
benefits and the advantages will keep attention focused on
the positive potential in the team’s efforts.
With an optimistic outlook, most negatives can be seen as
barriers to be removed rather than realities to be accepted.
4. Mutual Respect
Trust and mutual respect is the core ingredient.
Attentive ears for listening, open minds for hearing, and
empathetic hearts for understanding are the means by which
mutual respect is shown and mutual trust is built.
Teams thrive in an environment of genuine dialogue, not
contentious discussions or constant debate.
The former allows new ideas and innovation to emerge around
what matters most to the whole team. The latter keep team
members trapped in defending their own positions.
 EFFECTIVENESS OF TEAM
5. Good Will
Taking the time to discover what team members value in
common will create an environment of good will that will
attract exceptional effort.
Having a clear and strong core values and purposes is essential
to sustaining the efforts necessary to achieve desired
results.

6. Making It Feel Good

To use jazz as a model, we must be able to think of ourselves as
artists, as people involved in the creation of something that
is instructive and inspirational.
"People will forget what you said, people will forget what you did,
but people will never forget how you made them feel."
Teams that make it feel good do great things.
 TYPES OF TEAMS
1. Task Force - a temporary team assembled to investigate a
specific issue or problem.

2. Problem Solving Team - a temporary team assembled to

solve a specific problem.

3. Product Design Team - a temporary team assembled to

design a new product or service.

4. Committee - a temporary or permanent group of people

assembled to act upon some matter.

5. Work Group - a permanent group of workers who receive

direction from a designated leader.
 TYPES OF TEAMS
6. Work Team (also called Self-Directed Work Team or Self-
Managed Work Team) - an ongoing group of workers who
share a common mission who collectively manage their own
affairs within predetermined boundaries. 
A self-directed work team (SDWT) is a group of people, usually
employees in a company, who combine different skills and
talents to work without the usual managerial supervision
toward a common purpose or goal.
Purposes might include problem solving, increasing sales and
productivity, career training, and product improvement.

7. Quality Circle (today also under various other names) –

a group of workers from the same functional area who meet

regularly to uncover and solve work-related problems and
seek work improvement opportunities.
The name of the group or team type is less important than the
purpose for which it exists. These names simply give us a
common language to help us define team types.
A Simulation Game
      You and your companions have just survived the crash of a
small plane.  Both the pilot and co-pilot were killed in the crash.  It
is mid-January , and you are in Northern Canada.  The daily
temperature is 25 below zero, and the night time temperature is 40
below zero.  There is snow on the ground,
and the countryside is wooded with several creeks criss-crossing
the area.  The nearest town is 20 miles away.  You are all dressed in
city clothes appropriate for a business meeting.  Your group of
survivors managed to salvage the following items:
A ball of steel wool
A small axe
A  loaded  .45-caliber pistol
Can of Crisco shortening
Newspapers (one per person)
Cigarette lighter (without fluid)
Extra shirt and pants for each survivor
20 x 20 ft. piece of heavy-duty canvas
A sectional air map made of plastic
One quart of 100-proof whiskey
A  compass
Family-size chocolate bars (one per person)
Your task as a group is to list the above 12 items in order of
importance for your survival.  List the uses for each.  You  MUST
come to agreement as a group.
 Ranking of the important items.
1.  Cigarette lighter (without fluid)
The gravest danger facing the group is exposure to cold.  The
greatest need is for a source of warmth and the second greatest
need is for signalling devices.  This makes building a fire the first
order of business. Without matches, something is needed to
produce sparks, and even without fluid, a
cigarette lighter can do that.
2.  Ball of steel wool
To make a fire, the survivors need a means of catching he sparks
made by the cigarette lighter.  This is the best substance for
catching a spark and supporting a flame, even if the steel wool is a
little wet.
3.  Extra shirt and pants for each survivor
Besides adding warmth to the body, clothes can also be used for
shelter, signalling, bedding, bandages, string (when unravelled),
and fuel for the fire.
 Ranking of the important items.
4.  Can of Crisco shortening
This has many uses.  A mirror-like signalling device can be made
from the lid.  After shining the lid with steel wool, it will reflect
sunlight and generate 5 to 7 million candlepower.  This is bright
enough to be seen beyond the horizon. 
While this could be limited somewhat by the trees, a member of the
group could climb a tree and use the mirrored lid to signal search
planes. If they had no other means of signalling than this, they
would have a better than 80% chance of being rescued within the
first day.
There are other uses for this item.  It can be rubbed on exposed
skin for protection against the cold.  When melted into an oil, the
shortening is helpful as fuel.  When soaked into a piece of cloth,
melted shortening will act like a candle.  The empty can is useful in
melting snow for drinking water.  It is much safer to drink warmed
water than to eat snow, since warm water will help retain body
heat.   Water is important because dehydration will affect decision-
making.  The can is also useful as a cup.
 Ranking of the important items.
5.  20 x 20 foot piece of canvas
The cold makes shelter necessary, and canvas would protect
against wind and snow (canvas is used in making tents).  Spread on
a frame made of trees, it could be used as a tent or a wind screen. 
It might also be used as a ground cover to keep the survivors dry. 
It’s shape, when contrasted with the surrounding terrain,  makes it
a signalling device.
6. Small axe
Survivors need a constant supply of wood in order to maintain the
fire.  The axe could be used for this as well as for clearing a
sheltered campsite, cutting tree branches for ground insulation, and
constructing a frame for the canvas tent.
7.  Family size chocolate bars (one per person)
Chocolate will provide some food energy.  Since it contains mostly
carbohydrates, it supplies the energy without making digestive
demands on the body.
 Ranking of the important items.

8.  Newspapers (one per person)

These are useful in starting a fire.  They can also be used as
insulation under clothing when rolled up and placed around a
person’s arms and legs.  A newspaper  can also be used  as
a verbal signalling device when rolled up in a megaphone-
shape.  It could also provide reading material for recreation.
9.  Loaded .45-caliber pistol
The pistol provides a sound-signalling device.  (The
international distress signal is 3 shots fired in rapid
succession). There have been numerous cases of survivors
going undetected because they were too weak to make a
loud enough noise to attract attention.  The butt of the pistol
could be used as a hammer, and the powder from the shells
will assist in fire building.  By placing a small bit of cloth in a
cartridge emptied of its bullet, one can start a fire by firing
the gun at dry wood on the ground. The pistol also has some
serious disadvantages. 
 Ranking of the important items.
10.  Quart of 100 proof whiskey
The only uses of whiskey are as an aid in fire building and as a fuel
for a torch (made by soaking a piece of clothing in the whiskey and
attaching it to a tree branch).  The empty bottle could be used for
storing water.   The danger of whiskey  is that someone might drink
it, thinking it would bring
warmth.  Alcohol takes on the temperature it is exposed to, and a
drink of minus 30 degrees Fahrenheit whiskey would freeze a
person’s oesophagus and stomach.  Alcohol also dilates the blood
vessels in the skin, resulting in  chilled blood belong carried back to
the heart, resulting in a rapid loss of
body heat. 
 
 Ranking of the important items.
11.  Compass
Because a compass might encourage someone to try to walk to the
nearest town, it is a dangerous item.  It’s only redeeming feature is
that it could be used as a reflector of sunlight (due to its glass top).
12.  Sectional air map made of plastic
This is also among the least desirable of the items because it will
encourage individuals to try to walk to the nearest town. It’s only 
useful feature is as a ground cover to keep someone dry.
How to score
Each team should list its top 5 choices in order prior to seeing the
answer sheet.  To award points,   look at the ranking numbers on
this answer sheet.  Award points to each team’s top choices
according to the numbers here.  For example, the map would earn
12 points, while the steel wool would earn 2
points. Lowest score wins (and survives).
 
 
 GROUP PROCESS
Group process refers to how the group works
together. They are the daily interactions that occur
as a group works together to accomplish its tasks.
Major process visible during group interactions are
–
• Group Communication
• Group decision making
• Group leadership.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION

The first important research study of small group

communication was performed by social psychologist
Robert Bales.

A lot of prescriptive information (i.e., do this, stop doing

that) flows downward along the links. It's unusual, and can
cause problems, when prescriptive information moves in a
different pattern, such as from a boss to someone else's
subordinate, or among peers, or from a subordinate to a
supervisor. At the same time, a lot of descriptive ('this is
the status of such-and-such project') flows up the links,
often in the form of reports.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
The formal organization also determines a lot of
other communication as well. For example, the
personnel department, like the payroll
department, generally has to interact with all
employees. People in the marketing research
department work closely with people in the
marketing department, who also work with people
in the new product development department.
In addition to these formally prescribed
communications, there are also multitudes of
informal communications, ranging from getting
technical advice to weekend parties.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
The Leavitt Experiment At time 1, persons 2, 3, 4, and 5
can send their information to person 1, so at the end of
time 1, person 1 knows all the information and therefore
(presumably) the answer. At time 2, person 1 can send the
answer to person 2. At time 3, person 1 can send the
answer to person 3. At time 4, person 1 can send the
answer to person 4. And finally, at time 5, person 1 can
send the answer to person 5. So, given that you can't send
stuff simultaneously to more than one person at a time, it
takes a minimum of five units of time for this configuration
to solve the puzzle.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Now consider the Y. At time 1, persons 2, 3 and 4 send
their info to person 1, while person 5 sends to person 4. At
time 2, person's 1 and 4 exchange what they know, so
now both of them know everything. At time 3, person 1
sends the answer to person 2, while person 4 sends the
answer to person 5. At time 4, person 1 sends the answer
to person 3. So it takes the Y only 4 units of time, at
minimum.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Results
Time. The star and Y were considerably faster, on average, than the chain and
circle.

Messages. The star and Y used the least number of messages. The chain was
next, then the circle (which used quite a bit more).

Errors. An error was defined as the throwing of an incorrect switch before the
end of a game. The star, the Y and chain made the fewest errors, while the
circle made the most.

Satisfaction. The subjects in a the circle network enjoyed themselves the most,
followed by the chain, the Y and finally the star.

Leadership. The probability of opining that the group had a leader went up in
the order: circle, chain, Y, and star. In addition, agreement as to who was the
leader increased in the same order (it was 100% in the case of the star).

Improvement. Circle people were very likely to say that they could have done
things more efficiently and that was missing was "a system". Star people did not
feel they could improve much.
 GROUP COMMUNICATION

The next table shows under which conditions and criteria

centralized vs decentralized systems are best.
Variable Simple Task Complex Task
Fewest message: centralized centralized
Least time: centralized decentralized
Least errors: centralized decentralized
Most satisfaction: decentralized decentralized
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Communication Patterns –

X
1 2 3 4

Y
Group Characteristics
Clarity of leadership HIGH MODERATE

Group member
Participation LOW MODERATE

Quality of work
Complex LOW MODERATE
Simple HIGH MODERATE
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Communication Patterns –

Group Characteristics
Clarity of leadership HIGH LOW

Group member
Participation LOW MODERATE

Quality of work
Complex LOW MODERATE
Simple HIGH MODERATE
 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Communication Patterns –

Group Characteristics
Clarity of leadership LOW

Group member
Participation HIGH

Quality of work
Complex HIGH
Simple MODERATE
 GROUP COMMUNICATION

Each communication pattern has strengths and

weaknesses.
The group members must weigh the trade offs
remembering both solution quality and implementation
criterion.
A group’s communication network influences not only the
group but also the individual outcomes, including
performance, effectiveness and member’s level of
satisfaction.
Centralized networks are most efficient for simple tasks,
but peripheral members are often dissatisfied in such
networks.
 GROUP DECISION MAKING
Groups as decision makers –
• Collective information processing better and so people
often rely on groups to make decisions and solve problems.
• Collective memory – A group’s combined memories,
including each member’s memories, the group’s shared
mental models and transactive memory systems help better
decisions.
• Cross cuing- When groups members discuss information,
members may give each other cues that help them
remember things that they would not recall if working alone.
 GROUP decision making

Often groups are confronted with problems to resolve or

decisions to be made.
A social decision is a group’s method of combining individual
member’s input in a single group decision. The
MAJORITY RULES MODEL is frequently observed which
predicts that any decision favoured by more than 50% of
the group members will be selected by the group as the
final decision.
Common Decision making methods –
1. DELEGATING DECISIONS – An individual or subgroup
within the group makes the decision for the entire group.
Dictatorship, oligarchy, expert opinion.
 GROUP decision making

2. AVERAGING INDIVIDUAL INPUTS – groups make

individual decision either before or after group
discussion and these private recommendations are
averaged together to yield an overall conclusion.

3. VOTING – Groups adopt the decision that a specified

proportion of the group favours, such as more than
50% or a two thirds majority.

4. CONSENSUS – The group discusses the issue until it

reaches unanimous agreement without voting.
 GROUP decision making

How the group makes its decisions influences group

member's satisfaction and willingness to act on a
decision.

People are more likely to regard a decision as a fair one if the

decisional procedures are implemented
• Consistently
• Without self interest
• On the basis of accurate information
• With opportunities to correct the decision
• With interests of all concerned parties represented.
• Following moral and ethical standards.
 GROUP decision making
When the die is cast and the decision is made, two significant
pieces of work remain to be done.
1. Implementation
2. Evaluating the quality of the decision.
However, making decisions in a group can encounter lot of
problems which would hamper the quality.
• Poor communication
• Egocentric behaviour
• Non participation
• Sidetracked
• Interruptions
• Negative leader behaviour.
• Attitudes and emotions.
 GROUP decision making

Group members who are reluctant decision makers, use

certain methods which limit the group’s capability to take
decisions.
• Procrastination – blaming others and postponing
decision.
• Bolstering – Group arbitrarily formulates a decision by
exaggerating the favourable consequences and
minimizing the importance and likelihood of unfavourable
consequences.
• Avoiding responsibility – diffusing accountability.
 GROUP decision making

• Ignoring alternatives – The group muddles through only

a limited number of alternatives.

• Satisficing – Members compromise on reaching the

satisfactory solution instead of working on the best
solution. Although superior solution exists, members
content with the alternative that surpasses the minimal
cut off point.

• Trivialising the discussion – The group avoids dealing

with larger issues by focusing on minor issues.
 GROUP decision making

Group think –
It is a distorted style of thinking that renders group members
incapable of making rational decision.
Janis defines group think as – “ a mode of thinking that people
engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive
in-group, when members striving for unanimity over ride
their motivation to realistically appraise alternative
courses of actions”.
- Symptoms of group think
- Causes of group think
- Preventing group think.
Organizational
Structure
GROUP - V
 Group - V
• Anup Ranaware
• Shriya Upadhyay
• Purnima Tripathi
• Prasad Umbargikar
• Rushabh Shah
• Lalit Inani
• Radhika Kanade
• Purnima Phatak
• Arti Gupta
 Introduction

Organisation Structure.
• Departmentation.
• Matrix Organization.
• Strategic Business Units.
• Example.
•
 What is Organizational
Structure?
• The manner in which an organization divides its
employees into specific tasks and achieves
coordination among these tasks.

• Structure affects how effectively and efficiently

group effort is coordinated.
 President

Vice president Vice president Vice president

( development) (operation) (Finance)

Director of Director of
pre -operating
purchasing
system

General Manager Controller

Marketing Accounting Engineering Customer

service
Other employees
Departmentation
• Departmentation is a process of dividing large
organisation into smaller, flexible administrative units.

• It is the “Grouping of activities & employees into

departments”.

• It is a method of arranging activities to facilitate the

accomplishment of organisational objectives.
 Bases of Departmentation

Departmentation by Function

Departmentation by Area

Departmentation by Product

Departmentation by Customer
 ( Part II )

• Departmentation by Process

• Departmentation by Task Force

• Departmentation by Time

• Departmentation by Marketing Channel

• Hybrid Departmentation
 Need & importance of
Departmentation

•Specialisation
•Expansion
•Fixation of responsibility
•Providing better customer service
•Performance Appraisal
•Management Development
•Optimum utilisation of Resouces
•Facilitates control
The Matrix Organization
A permanent organization designed to
achieve specific results by using teams of
specialists from different functional areas
in the organization is a Matrix
Organization.
• NEED.
• EXCELLENT OPPORTUNITY FOR
STAR PERFORMANCE.
Dual-Authority Structure
in a Matrix Organization
President

Director Design Mfg Marketing Procure-

of Product Vice Vice Vice Controller ment
Operations President President President Manager

Product
Manager A

Product
Manager B

Product
Manager C

Product
Manager D
The Matrix Organization
Advantages :

 Top management concentrate on

strategic planning
 Respond to change in environment
 Specialization
 Optimum use of resources
 Motivation
The Matrix Organization
Advantages (cont.)

• Inter departmental co-operation

• Development of skills
• Higher efficiency
 The Matrix Organization
Disadvantages
• Increase in work load
• High operating cost
• Absence of unity of command
• Power struggle
• Difficulty of balance
• Complex nature
• Shifting of responsibility
• Affects morale
FEATURES

• COMBINATION
• AUTHORITY OF PROJECT MANAGER
• AUTHORITY OF FUNCTIONAL
MANAGER
• PROBLEM OF UNITY OF DEMAND
• SUITABILITY
 Strategic Business Unit
Meaning :
• A strategic business unit is a significant
organization segment that is analyzed to develop
organizational strategy aimed at generating
future business or revenue.

• TCS Sets Up Strategic Business Unit

Named TCS financial solutions, the unit will
position the company's suite of financial
products under a single umbrella.
 Characteristics of SBU’s
• It is a single business or collection of related
businesses.
• It has its own competitors.
• It has a manager who is accountable for its
operation
• It is an area that can be independently planned
for within the organization.
• It has its own mission, distinct from the mission
of other SBU’S.
 Potential problems of SBU’s

• Co-ordination.
• Integration.
• Underinvestment.
• Allocation of resources.
• Willingness of manager.
 Benefits of SBU’s
• Effective & efficient use of resources.
• Gives importance to each product or product line.
• Preserves attention & energies of a manager &
staff.
• Promotes entrepreneurship.
• Proper implementation of strategic & operating
plans.