Rubber, Plastics & Ceramics 2

Rubbers, Plastics, and
Ceramics Industry
Prepared by:
Tan, Paul Angelo A.
Vecera, Jed Riel N.
Villanueva, Kevin R.
RUBBER INDUSTRY
Scope of the Presentation
 Introduction
 History
 Uses and Application of Natural Rubber
 Raw Materials
 Pictorial Flowchart
 Process Description
 Major Equipment
 Pollution and Abatement
 Terms and Definition
Introduction
What is rubber?
• is a highly elastic solid substance, light cream

or dark amber in color, polymerized by the
drying and coagulation of the latex or milky
juice of rubber trees and plants, especially
Hevea and Ficus species.
What is rubber
• a material made by chemically treating and
toughening this substance, valued for its
elasticity, non-conduction of electricity, shock
absorption, and resistance to moisture, used in
the manufacture of erasers, electrical
insulation, elastic bands, crepe soles, toys,
water hoses, tires, and many other products.
Rubber
TYPES OF RUBBER
1. Natural Rubber
2. Synthetic Rubber
Natural Rubber
- also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as
initially produced, consists of polymers of the
organic compound isoprene, with minor
impurities of other organic compounds, plus
water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the
leading rubber producers. Forms of polyisoprene
that are used as natural rubbers are classified as
elastomers.
Natural Rubber
Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of
the latex from the rubber tree or others. The latex is a
sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions
in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels in a
process called "tapping". The latex then is refined
into rubber ready for commercial processing. In
major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the
collection cup. The coagulated lumps are collected
and processed into dry forms for marketing.
Natural Rubber
Natural rubber is used extensively in many
applications and products, either alone or in
combination with other materials. In most of its
useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high
resilience, and is extremely waterproof.
Natural Rubber
Natural rubber is often vulcanized, a process by
which the rubber is heated and sulfur, peroxide
or bisphenol are added to improve resistance and
elasticity, and to prevent it from perishing.
Carbon black is often used as an additive to
rubber to improve its strength, especially in
vehicle tires.
Natural Rubber
Other significant uses of rubber are door and
window profiles, hoses, belts, matting, flooring
and dampeners for the automotive industry.
Gloves and toy balloons are also large
consumers of rubber. Significant amounts of
rubber are used as adhesives in many
manufacturing industries and products, although
the two most noticeable are the paper and carpet
industries.
Natural Rubber
Rubber is also commonly used to make rubber
bands and pencil erasers. Many aircraft tires and
inner tubes are still made of natural rubber due
to the high cost of certification for aircraft use of
synthetic replacements.
Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber is a man-made rubber which
is produced in manufacturing plants by
synthesizing it from petroleum and other
minerals. Synthetic rubber is basically a polymer
or an artificial polymer. It has the property of
undergoing elastic stretchability or deformation
under stress but can also return to its previous
size without permanent deformation.
Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber is used as a substitute for
natural rubber in many cases. Depending on the
chemicals added and the properties associated
with it, the synthetic rubber can be as hard as a
bowling ball or as resilient as a rubber band or
as soft as a sponge. When improved material
properties are required, synthetic rubber is
considered. Approximately 70% of all rubber
used today are one from many synthetic rubber
varieties.
Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber is artificially made from
petrochemical feedstocks. Crude oil is the
principal raw material for different types of
rubber in synthetic category. As opposed to
natural rubber where there is only one chemical
type, there are approximately 20 different
chemical types of synthetic rubber, and within all
of the types of rubber, there are different grades.
Synthetic Rubber
The different types of rubber, especially the
synthetic rubber types have their own individual
properties and advantages. The industry chooses
the rubber types which most clearly meet the
demands of an intended use.
History of Natural Rubber
History
The first use of rubber was by the indigenous
cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest
archeological evidence of the use of natural latex
from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture, in
which rubber was first used for making balls for
the Mesoamerican ballgame.
History
Rubber was later used by the Maya and Aztec
cultures - in addition to making balls Aztecs
used rubber for other purposes such as making
containers and to make textiles waterproof by
impregnating them with the latex sap.
History
The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South
America. Charles Marie de La Condamine is
credited with introducing samples of rubber to
the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in
1736. In 1751, he presented a paper by François
Fresneau to the Académie (published in 1755)
that described many of rubber's properties.
History
This has been referred to as the first scientific
paper on rubber. In England, Joseph Priestley, in
1770, observed that a piece of the material was
extremely good for rubbing off pencil marks on
paper, hence the name "rubber". It slowly made
its way around England. In 1764 François
Fresnau discovered that turpentine was a rubber
solvent. Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the
discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent in 1779.
History
It slowly made its way around England. In 1764
François Fresnau discovered that turpentine was
a rubber solvent. Giovanni Fabbroni is credited
with the discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent
in 1779.
History
South America remained the main source of
the limited amounts of latex rubber used
during much of the 19th century. The trade was
heavily protected and exporting seeds from
Brazil was a capital offense, although no law
prohibited it. Nevertheless, in 1876, Henry
Wickham smuggled 70,000 Pará rubber tree
seeds from Brazil and delivered them to Kew
Gardens, England.
History
Only 2,400 of these germinated. Seedlings were
then sent to India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka),
Indonesia, Singapore, and British Malaya.
Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia) was later to
become the biggest producer of rubber. In the
early 1900s, the Congo Free State in Africa was
also a significant source of natural rubber latex,
mostly gathered by forced labor. Liberia and
Nigeria started production.
History
In India, commercial cultivation was introduced
by British planters, although the experimental
efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale
were initiated as early as 1873 at the Calcutta
Botanical Gardens.The first commercial Hevea
plantations were established at Thattekadu in
Kerala in 1902.
History
In later years the plantation expanded to
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands of India. India today is the
world's 3rd largest producer and 4th largest
consumer.
History
In Singapore and Malaya, commercial
production was heavily promoted by Sir Henry
Nicholas Ridley, who served as the first
Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic
Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed
rubber seeds to many planters and developed the
first technique for tapping trees for latex without
causing serious harm to the tree.
History
Because of his fervent promotion of this crop, he
is popularly remembered by the nickname "Mad
Ridley".
History
Pre-World War II
Charles Goodyear developed vulcanization in

1839, although Mesoamericans used stabilized
rubber for balls and other objects as early as
1600 BC.
Before World War II significant uses included
door and window profiles, hoses, belts, gaskets,
matting, flooring and dampeners (antivibration
mounts) for the automotive industry.
History
The use of rubber in car tires (initially solid
rather than pneumatic) in particular consumed a
significant amount of rubber. Gloves (medical,
household and industrial) and toy balloons were
large consumers of rubber, although the type of
rubber used is concentrated latex.
History
Significant tonnage of rubber was used as
adhesives in many manufacturing industries and
products, although the two most noticeable
were the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber
was commonly used to make rubber bands and
pencil erasers.
History
Rubber produced as a fiber, sometimes called
'elastic', had significant value to the textile
industry because of its excellent elongation and
recovery properties. For these purposes,
manufactured rubber fiber was made as either an
extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut
into strips from extruded film.
History
Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and
appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered
by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with
other yarns into the fabric. Rubber yarns were
used in foundation garments.
History
While rubber is still used in textile
manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in
lightweight garments because latex lacks
resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by
aging, sunlight, oil and perspiration. The textile
industry turned to neoprene (polymer of
chloroprene), a type of synthetic rubber, as well
as another more commonly used elastomer fiber,
spandex (also known as elastane),
History
because of their superiority to rubber in both
strength and durability.
History of Synthetic Rubber
History
The expanded use of motor vehicles, and
particularly motor vehicle tires, starting in the
1890s, created increased demand for rubber. In
1909, a team headed by Fritz Hofmann,
working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld,
Germany, succeeded in polymerizing Isoprene,
the first synthetic rubber.
History
The first rubber polymer synthesized from
butadiene was created in 1910 by the Russian
scientist Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev.
This form of synthetic rubber provided the basis
for the first large-scale commercial production
by the tsarist empire, which occurred during
World War I as a result of shortages of natural
rubber. This early form of synthetic rubber was
again replaced with natural rubber after the war
History
ended, but investigations of synthetic rubber
continued. Russian American Ivan
Ostromislensky who moved to New York in
1922 did significant early research on synthetic
rubber and a couple of monomers in the early
20th century.
History
Political problems that resulted from great
fluctuations in the cost of natural rubber led to
the enactment of the Stevenson Act in 1921.
This act essentially created a cartel which
supported rubber prices by regulating
production (see OPEC), but insufficient supply,
especially due to wartime shortages, also led to
a search for alternative forms of synthetic
rubber.
History
By 1925 the price of natural rubber had
increased to the point that many companies
were exploring methods of producing synthetic
rubber to compete with natural rubber. In the
United States, the investigation focused on
different materials than in Europe, building on
the early laboratory work of Fr Julius
Nieuwland, a professor of chemistry at the
University of Notre Dame, who developed the
synthesis of neoprene.
History
Studies published in 1930 written independently
by Lebedev, the American Wallace Carothers
and the German scientist Hermann Staudinger
led in 1931 to one of the first successful
synthetic rubbers, known as neoprene, which
was developed at DuPont under the direction of
E.K. Bolton. Neoprene is highly resistant to
heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, and
is used in fuel hoses and as an insulating
material in machinery.
History
The company Thiokol applied their name to a
competing type of rubber based on ethylene
dichloride which was commercially available in
1930.
The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 (from Russian

"Synthetic Kauchuk", Russian: СК-1) was established
(Russia) by Sergei Lebedev in Yaroslavl under Joseph
Stalin's First Five-Year Plan on July 7, 1932.
History of SR
In 1935, German chemists synthesized the first
of a series of synthetic rubbers known as Buna
rubbers. These were copolymers, meaning the
polymers were made up from two monomers in
alternating sequence. Other brands included
Koroseal, which Waldo Semon developed in
1935, and Sovprene, which Russian researchers
created in 1940.
History
World War II
B.F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon

developed a new and cheaper version of
synthetic rubber known as Ameripol in 1940.
Ameripol made synthetic rubber production
much more cost effective, helping to meet the
United States' needs during World War II.
History
The production of synthetic rubber in the
United States expanded greatly during World
War II, since the Axis powers controlled nearly
all the world's limited supplies of natural rubber
by mid-1942. Military trucks needed rubber for
tires, and rubber was used in almost every other
war machine. The U.S. government launched a
major (and largely secret) effort to improve
synthetic rubber production.
History
A large team of chemists from many
institutions were involved, including Calvin
Souther Fuller of Bell Labs. The rubber
designated GRS (Government Rubber Styrene),
a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, was the
basis for U.S. synthetic rubber production
during World War II. By 1944, a total of 50
factories were manufacturing it, pouring out a
volume of the material twice that of the world's
History
natural rubber production before the beginning
of the war. It still represents about half of total
world production.
Operation Pointblank bombing targets of Nazi
Germany included the Schkopau (50,000
tons/yr) plant and the Hüls synthetic rubber
plant near Recklinghausen (30,000, 17%), and
the Kölnische Gummifäden Fabrik tire and tube
plant at Deutz on the east bank of the Rhine.
History
The Ferrara, Italy, synthetic rubber factory (near
a river bridge) was bombed August 23, 1944.
Three other synthetic rubber facilities were at
Ludwigshafen/Oppau (15,000),
Hanover/Limmer (reclamation, 20,000), and
Leverkusen (5,000).
History
A synthetic rubber plant at Oświęcim in Nazi-
occupied Poland, was under construction on
March 5, 1944 operated by IG Farben and
supplied with slave labor, by the SS, from the
associated camp Auschwitz III (Monowitz).
History
Post-war
Solid-fuel rockets during World War II used

nitrocellulose for propellants, but it was
impractical and dangerous to make such rockets
very large. During the war, California Institute
of Technology (Caltech) researchers came up
with a new solid fuel based onasphalt mixed
with an oxidizer (such as potassium or
ammonium perchlorate), and aluminium
powder.
History
This new solid fuel burned more slowly and
evenly than nitrocellulose, and was much less
dangerous to store and use, but it tended to
slowly flow out of the rocket in storage and the
rockets using it had to be stockpiled nose down.
After the war, Caltech researchers began to

investigate the use of synthetic rubbers to
replace asphalt in their solid fuel rocket motors.
History
By the mid-1950s, large missiles were being
built using solid fuels based on synthetic rubber,
mixed with ammonium perchlorate and high
proportions of aluminium powder. Such solid
fuels could be cast into large, uniform blocks
that had no cracks or other defects that would
cause non-uniform burning.
History
Ultimately, all large solid-fuel military rockets
and missiles would use synthetic-rubber-based
solid fuels, and they would also play a
significant part in the civilian space effort.
History
Additional refinements to the process of
creating synthetic rubber continued after the
war. The chemical synthesis of isoprene
accelerated the reduced need for natural rubber,
and the peacetime quantity of synthetic rubber
exceeded the production of natural rubber by
the early 1960s.
History
Synthetic rubber is used a great deal in printing
on textiles, in which case it is called rubber
paste. In most cases titanium dioxide is used
with copolymerization and volatile matter in
producing such synthetic rubber for textile use.
Moreover, this kind of preparation can be
considered to be the pigment preparation based
on titanium dioxide.
History
By the 1960s, most chewing gum companies
had switched from using chicle to butadiene-
based synthetic rubber which was cheaper to
manufacture.
Properties of Natural Rubber
 Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical
properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior
exhibits the Mullins effect and the Payne effect
and is often modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber
strain crystallizes.
 Due to the presence of a double bond in each
repeat unit, natural rubber is susceptible to
vulcanisation and sensitive to ozone cracking.
 The two main solvents for rubber are
turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because
rubber does not dissolve easily, the material
is finely divided by shredding prior to its
immersion.
 An ammonia solution can be used to prevent
the coagulation of raw latex.
 Rubber begins to melt at approximately
180 °C (356 °F).
Elasticity
On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a
disorganized cluster of erratically changing
wrinkled chains. In stretched rubber, the
chains are almost linear. The restoring force is
due to the preponderance of wrinkled
conformations over more linear ones. For the
quantitative treatment see ideal chain, for
more examples see entropic force.
Cooling below the glass transition temperature
permits local conformational changes but a
reordering is practically impossible because of
the larger energy barrier for the concerted
movement of longer chains. "Frozen" rubber's
elasticity is low and strain results from small
changes of bond lengths and angles: this caused
the Challenger disaster, when the American
Space Shuttle's flattened o-rings failed to relax
to fill a widening gap. The glass transition is fast
and reversible: the force resumes on heating.
The parallel chains of stretched rubber are

susceptible to crystallization. This takes some
time because turns of twisted chains have to
move out of the way of the growing crystallites.
Crystallization has occurred, for example, when,
after days, an inflatedtoy balloon is found
withered at a relatively large remaining volume.
Where it is touched, it shrinks because the
temperature of the hand is enough to melt the
crystals.
Vulcanization of rubber creates disulfide bonds
between chains, which limits the degrees of
freedom and results in chains that tighten more
quickly for a given strain, thereby increasing the
elastic force constant and making the rubber
harder and less extensible.
Uses of Natural Rubber
Uncured rubber is used for cements; for
adhesive, insulating, and friction tapes; and for
crepe rubber used in insulating blankets and
footwear. Vulcanized rubber has many more
applications. Resistance to abrasion makes
softer kinds of rubber valuable for the treads of
vehicle tires and conveyor belts, and makes
hard rubber valuable for pump housings and
piping used in the handling of abrasive sludge.
The flexibility of rubber is appealing in hoses,
tires and rollers for devices ranging from
domestic clothes wringers to printing presses;
its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds
of shock absorbers and for specialized
machinery mountings designed to reduce
vibration. Its relative gas impermeability makes
it useful in the manufacture of articles such as
air hoses, balloons, balls and cushions.
The resistance of rubber to water and to the
action of most fluid chemicals has led to its use
in rainwear, diving gear, and chemical and
medicinal tubing, and as a lining for storage
tanks, processing equipment and railroad tank
cars. Because of their electrical resistance, soft
rubber goods are used as insulation and for
protective gloves, shoes and blankets; hard
rubber is used for articles such as telephone
housings, parts for radio sets, meters and other
electrical instruments. The coefficient of friction
of rubber, which is high on dry surfaces and low
on wet surfaces, leads to its use for power-
transmission belting and for water-lubricated
bearings in deep-well pumps. Indian rubber
balls or lacrosse balls are made of rubber.
Around 25 million tonnes of rubber are
produced each year, of which 30 percent is
natural. The remainder is synthetic rubber
derived from petrochemical sources. The top
end of latex production results in latex products
such as surgeons' gloves, condoms, balloons
and other relatively high-value products. The
mid-range which comes from the technically
specified natural rubber materials ends up
largely in tires but also in conveyor belts,
marine products, windshield wipers and
miscellaneous goods.
Natural rubber offers good elasticity, while
synthetic materials tend to offer better
resistance to environmental factors such as oils,
temperature, chemicals and ultraviolet light.
"Cured rubber" is rubber that has been
compounded and subjected to the vulcanisation
process to create cross-links within the rubber
matrix.
Applications of Natural
Rubber
Applications
Tires:Today, automobile tires are made up of
50% natural rubber, and tires used for aircraft
are made out of 100% natural rubber. The
reason for this is that the properties of natural
rubber make it optimal for creating “radial”
tires, a design which emerged in the 1970’s and
is far superior to its predecessor.
Applications
Other Automobile Uses:
Natural rubber is used to
create seals and various
forms of padding for a
number of automobile
parts. For example, it
pads the brakes and is in
the seals of the windows
and windshields.
Applications
Adhesives and
Coatings: In its latex
form, rubber can be
used as an adhesive
or a protective
coating for many
surfaces.
Applications
Ducting: Rubber can
be turned into a
variety of ducting
products.
Applications
Rubber Gloves:
This has been and
perhaps always will
be the preferred
method of keeping
our hands safe and
sanitary.
Applications
Airbags: Rubber is used to produce airbags
that protect riders from injury after high-
impact accidents have occurred. Hopefully
you will never have to see this for yourself,
but it is good to know that the protection is
there.
Applications
Flooring: Many gyms, commercial kitchens,
animal shelters, and even playgrounds are
choosing rubber as the material from which to
create their flooring. Rubber provides a
surface which prevents fatigue, provides
padding, and is both slip-resistant and
waterproof. It is easy to maintain and is long-
lasting, making it an ideal option for flooring
for those who are mindful of efficiency and
economy.
Applications
Applications
Clothing: In its fibrous form, natural rubber
forms elastic which is used to produce tight-
fitting and expandable clothing such as
wetsuits and cycling shorts.
Applications
Erasers: Joseph Priestly, in 1770, discovered
that the product could “rub” away marks made
from pencils on paper, thus giving the material
its name and sparking the production of
erasers.
Applications
Ancient Uses: Ancient Mesoamerican
civilizations used rubber to waterproof shoes
and to create bottles. Not only that, but it was
used to create a ball in a game which is very
similar to modern-day basketball, soccer, and
football.
Applications
Anti-vibration: Rubber can be turned into
pads or mounts for machinery to ensure that
vibration does not affect its performance. It
can also be used to produce soundproofing
materials.
Applications
Flotation: Rubber produces things such as
inner tubes which serve to keep surfaces and
even people afloat. Look no further than your
local water park for this, but keep in mind that
there are commercial uses for inner tubes as
well!
Applications
Lining: Rubber is an optimal substance for
lining bins, chutes, and mixers that are used
industrially. Its protective qualities such as
being water-proof, resilient, and am insulator
make it ideal for these applications.
Applications
Nozzles: What better way to spray rubber latex
than through a nozzle that is also made of
rubber? Creating nozzles with rubber allows
for them to spray more substances and are
more durable than other spray nozzles.
Applications
Products Made from a Natural Rubber
Sheet: The sheets can be cut and customized
into a number of different products. Hoses,
belts, and seals are among these products.
Applications
Natural Rubber Gaskets: Gaskets are used in
between two or more mechanical parts, usually
to prevent leakage or to fill any sort of
irregular space between them. Gaskets are an
important part to the performance of any type
of machinery.
Uses and Application of
Synthetic Rubber
Uses/Application of Synthetic Rubber
Synthetic rubber can be mostly used with

natural rubbers as a single polymer or in
mixtures. In Between 65% and 70% of all
rubber goes into the production of tyres. Other
main applications include binders for paper
coating, carpet backing and molded articles
such as thin gloves.
Expanded rubber for mattresses and sponges

are used. It is also found in very thin films for
gloves or balloons, and in thicker films for the
production of casting molds, truck and car
tyres, engine mounts and various rubber /
metal compounds.
Another important application of rubber are

sealing strips. Because of favorable weather
properties, it is mainly used for this EPDM.
The sealing systems are manufactured by
extrusion and finishing processes often
flocked in connected, laminated or painted.
The neopropene is a polymer which is used as

chloroprene, monomer can resist oil. The
quality of resisting heat above 150°C is used
in the manufacture of certain materials, used
in machinery equipment and pipelines
transporting oil. It is also used as insulation in
electrical cables.
Nitrile rubber is obtained by copolymerization

of butadiene with acrylonitrile, has the
particularity to resist fats, oils and solvents.
Polyisoprene synthesis is the artificial rubber

which the chemical composition of
ingredients used in its manufacture has
properties identical to those of natural rubber.
Butyl rubber derives from isobutane and

copolymers of isoprene or butadiene does not
dissolve following the action of corrosive
chemicals and resists oxidation. It is found
mostly this type of rubber in the manufacture of
tubes of car tyres.
Buna rubber is composed of several monomers

which is used as catalyst to be obtained by
copolymerization process. It is mainly used in
the manufacture of tyres, cars. It represents
about 60% of world production of synthetic
rubber.
 Tyres: Man-made rubber is used to

manufacture tyres of various types. Today
synthetic rubber is used to manufacture tyres
as it is known to be tensile and durable. It is
thus considered to be one of the best options
for automobile tyres.
 Fuel missiles: Rubber based fuels were used

for launching missiles during the Second
World War. Man-made rubber can be formed
into various forms so it is widely used for
space travels.
 Scientific and medical field: Man-made

rubber is also used in the field of science and
medicine. It is used for manufacturing rubber
gloves, orthopedic braces and various other
medical items.
 Adhesive tapes and liquids: Due to its
adhesive qualities, it is used to manufacture
adhesive tapes and liquids.
 Protective clothing: Synthetic rubber is also

used to manufacture various types of
protective clothes, boots, sleep sacks, diving
suits and so forth.
 Tubes and hoses: Man-made rubber is also
used to manufacture garden hoses, gaskets,
mechanical seals, belts and hoses. It is also
used to manufacture inner tubes, garden hoses
and laboratory tubes.
 Apart from the above mentioned uses, man-

made rubber can also be used to manufacture
inflatable boats, diving suits, all types of
protective clothing and so forth. Today there a
huge variety of synthetic rubber products
available in many of the online stores at
affordable price rates.
Raw Material of Natural
Rubber
Raw Material
• Natural rubber can be isolated from more than
200 different species of plants. Commercially
significant source of natural rubber is Hevea
Brasiliensis. Natural rubber is obtained from
latex, which is the emulsion of cis-1,4-
polyisoprene and water. Latex is obtained from
the tree by tapping the innerbark and
collecting the latex in cups. A stabilizing
agent,
Raw Material
such as ammoniac, can prevent too early
coagulation.
Cis-1,4-polyisoprene. Collection of the latex
from rubber tree.
Raw Material
Latex can be concentrated by centrifuging or
creaming and sold as concentrated latex. Latex
can be coagulated with hydrogen carboxylic
acid or acetic acid, formed in sheets or
granulated and then dried to a solid raw rubber.
Raw rubber types are for example ribbed
smoked sheets (RSS), air-dried sheets (ADS)
and pale crepes.
Raw Material
Natural rubber also contains a few percent of
non-rubber constituents such as resins, proteins,
sugars and fatty acids, which can function as
weak antioxidants and accelerators in the
natural rubber. Natural rubber is usually
vulcanized using sulphur, but also peroxides
and isocyanates can be used.
Raw Material
The biggest producer countries of natural rubber
are Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and India.
Some classification systems that define the
maximum content of dirt, cinder, nitrogen and
volatile elements have been developed in these
countries. One well-known system is the
Standard Malesian Rubber system, which has
been used since 1965.
Raw Material
There are numerous methods for processing
latex into commercial grades of dry natural
rubber and latex, as shown in the diagram
below (Rubber Engineering, Indian Rubber
Institute, McGraw-Hill, 2000).
Raw Material
Varieties of Natural Rubber

Raw Material
 Hevea brasiliensis
The major commercial source of natural rubber
latex is the Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis),
a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.
This species is preferred because it grows well
under cultivation. A properly managed tree
responds to wounding by producing more latex
for several years.
Raw Material
 Congo rubber
Congo rubber, formerly a major source of
rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia
(L. kirkii, L. heudelotis, and L. owariensis).
These cannot be cultivated, and the intense drive
to collect latex from wild plants was responsible
for many of the atrocities committed under the
Congo Free State.
Raw Material
 Dandelion
Dandelion milk contains latex. The latex exhibits
the same quality as the natural rubber from
rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex
content is low and varies greatly. In Nazi
Germany, research projects tried to use
dandelions as a base for rubber production, but
failed.
Raw Material
 Dandelion(Con)
In 2013, by inhibiting one key enzyme and
using modern cultivation methods and
optimization techniques, scientists in the
Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology
and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany
developed a cultivar that is suitable for
commercial production of natural rubber. In
collaboration with Continental Tires, IME
began a pilot facility.
Raw Material
 Other
Many other plants produce forms of latex rich in
isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable
forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of
them require more elaborate processing to
produce anything like usable rubber, and most
are more difficult to tap. Some produce other
desirable materials, for example gutta-percha
(Palaquium gutta) and chicle from
Raw Material
 Other(con)
Manilkara species. Others that have been
commercially exploited, or at least showed promise
as rubber sources, include the rubber fig (Ficus
elastica), Panama rubber tree (Castilla elastica),
various spurges (Euphorbia spp.), lettuce (Lactuca
species), the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz,
various Taraxacum species, including common
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and Russian
dandelion
Raw Material
(Taraxacum kok-saghyz), and perhaps most
importantly for its hypoallergenic properties,
guayule (Parthenium argentatum). The term
gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-
obtained version of natural rubber in order to
distinguish it from the synthetic version.
Raw Material
 There are also many modified types of natural
rubber. There is e.g. oil-extended natural
rubber (OENR), which contains 20-30 % oil,
epoxidized NR and methacrylate grafted NR
(Heveaplus MG). The purpose of these
modifications is to improve the properties of
NR to meet the special needs of rubber
manufacturers.
Table of Common Synthetic Rubbers
ISO 1629 Code Technical Name Common Names
ACM Polyacrylate rubber
AEM Ethylene-acrylate rubber
AU Polyester urethane
Bromo isobutylene
BIIR Bromobutyl
isoprene
BR Polybutadiene Buna CB
Chloro isobutylene
CIIR Chlorobutyl, Butyl
isoprene
CR Polychloroprene Chloroprene, Neoprene
Chlorosulphonated
CSM Hypalon
polyethylene
ECO, Epichlorohydrin,
Epichlore,
ECO Epichlorohydrin
Epichloridrine, Herclor,
Hydrin
EP Ethylene propylene
Ethylene propylene
EPDM EPDM, Nordel
diene monomer
EU Polyether urethane
FFKM Perfluorocarbon rubber Kalrez, Chemraz
Fluoronated
FKM Viton, Fluorel
hydrocarbon
FMQ Fluoro silicone FMQ, Silicone rubber
FPM Fluorocarbon rubber
Hydrogenated nitrile
HNBR HNBR
butadiene
(Synthetic) natural
IR Polyisoprene
rubber
Isobutylene isoprene
IIR Butyl
butyl
Acrylonitrile NBR, Nitrile,
NBR
butadiene Perbunan, Buna-N
PU Polyurethane PU, Polyurethane
SBR, Buna-S, GRS,
SBR Styrene-butadiene
Buna VSL, Buna SE
Styrene ethylene
SEBS butylene styrene SEBS Rubber
copolymer
SI Polysiloxane Silicone rubber
VMQ Vinyl methyl silicone Silicone rubber
Acrylonitrile
XNBR, Carboxylated
XNBR butadiene carboxy
nitrile
monomer
Styrene butadiene
XSBR
carboxy monomer
Thermoplastic
YBPO
polyether-ester
Styrene butadiene block

YSBR
copolymer
Styrene butadiene
YXSBR carboxy block
copolymer
Acrylic Rubber (ACM) is a type of synthetic rubber containing
acrylonitrile. The chemical name of this rubber is Alkyl acrylate
copolymer. The outstanding property of this rubber is its resistance to
hot oil and to oxidation. These Rubber is suitable for continuous use at
temperatures up to 150 degree celsius and at intermittent exposure up to
about 180 degree celcius. It has however poor resistance to water or
moisture. ACM rubber is usually not suitable for use much below -10
degree celsius and also has poor resistance to acids and bases. Acrylic
rubber is widely used in automotive transmissions and hoses.
Butadiene Rubber (BR) is supposed to be the most
elastic rubber type. The chemical name of this rubber is
Polybutadiene. This rubber is polymerized butadiene
and usually used in combination with other rubber
types. This rubber is the second largest volume
synthetic rubber produced, after styrene-butadiene
rubber (SBR). In 1999, the consumption was about
1,953,000 metric tons worldwide.
Butyl rubber (IIR), the chemical name of which is Isobutylene-
isoprene copolymer is actually the copolymer of isobutylene and
a small amount of isoprene. Also known as polyisobutylene, this
rubber was first commercialized in 1943. Resulting from low
levels of unsaturation between long polyisobutylene segments,
the primary quialities of butyl rubber are excellent
impermeability or air retention and good flexible properties. The
first major use of butyl rubber was Tire innertubes, and this
continues to be a significant market today.
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene or CSM is a synthetic rubber based
on polyethylene. This rubber is a material with Neoprene
Polychloroprene plus other qualities. The CSM rubber is suitable for
continuous use up to about 130 degree celcius. Chlorosulfonated
polyethylene (CSM) is known for its excellent resistance to
atmospheric conditions and good resistance to chemicals.
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene is used in a variety of industrial and
automotive applications that require high performance and have to
withstand extreme weather conditions. Some poducts where
chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber is used include rubber linings,
hoses, valve seals and gaskets etc.
EPDM Rubber (Ethylene Propylene Diene
Monomer) is one of the most popular types of
synthetic rubber. EPDM rubber is an elastomer-
a high-density rubber that is very durable and
has a wide range of applications. Considered to
be the most water resistant rubber among all
types of rubber, EPDM rubber is widely used for
manufacturing of sheeting used at high
temperatures.
Fluroelastomer or FKM is a class of synthetic rubber designed
for very high temperature operation. FKM provides extraordinary
levels of resistance to chemicals, heat and oil, while providing
useful service life above 200°C. FKM are not a single entity but a
family of fluoropolymer rubbers. Fluoroelastomers or FKM
(sometimes also referred to as FKM Viton) can be classified by
their fluorine content, 66%, 68%, & 70% respectively. This
means that FKM rubber having higher fluorine content, have
increasing fluids resistance derived from increasing fluorine
levels.
The isoprene rubber (or IR rubber) is very much like
natural rubber but made artificially or synthetically. The
chemical name of isoprene rubber is synthetic cis-
polyisoprene. Essentially similar to natural rubber in
properties, this rubber may be somewhat weaker
because it is not 100% the cis-isomer. This rubber is
used in the same type of products as natural rubber.
Nitrile Rubber (NBR)is a synthetic rubber produced by
polymerization of acrylonitrile with butadiene. Nitrile synthetic rubber
is also known as NBR, acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber, acrylonitrile
rubber, nitrile-butadiene rubber, and NR. This type of synthetic rubber
is widely used in a number of applications. In fact, industrial nitrile
rubber is one of the very sought after variety of synthetic rubber by
most of the manufaturing units. In the year 2005, worldwide
consumption of NBR had reached almost 368,000 metric tons annually
and the global market for nitrile butadiene rubber has been forecast to
exceed 645 thousand tons by the year 2017
Perfluoroelastomer (FFKM) are a type of synthetic rubber having
even greater heat and chemical resistance than the fluoroelastomers.
Perfluoroelastomers are widely used as seals on semiconductor wafer
processing equipment. This type of rubber can be used in extreme
conditions up to temperatures around 300 degree celcius or even higher
under special compounding. The basic disadvantages of this rubber are
difficult processing, very high cost, poor physical properties at high
temperature, and their high glass transition temperatures which limit
their use at low temperatures. Most materials cannot be used below
zero degree celsius, and even at normal temperatures their creep
properties are likely to be poor.
Polychloroprene Rubber (CR)/ Neoprene has more than 75 years of
proven performance in varied industrial applications. Neoprene, an
extremely useful synthetic rubber, is the DuPont Performance Elastomer's
trade name for a family of polychloroprene rubber (CR). In other words,
polychloroprene is the polymer name for the synthetic rubber known as
neoprene. This rubber was developed in 1931 and supposed to be the first
specialty elastomer. This is one of the most important types of synthetic
rubber with an annual consumption of nearly 300000 tons worldwide.
Polychloroprene rubber has a perfect balance of mechanical properties and
fatigue resistance which is second only to natural rubber. Neoprene rubber
also has superior oil, chemical and heat resistance. This type of rubber
(Polychloroprene rubber or Neoprene) is widely used in general
engineering applications.
Polysulfide Rubber (PSR), An American chemist
known as Joseph Cecil Patrick discovered Polysulfide
rubber in 1926 by, while he was attempting to obtain
ethylene glycol for use as an antifreeze. This rubber was
commercialized under the trade name Thiokol, which
eventually became generic. This was one of the earliest
commercial synthetic polymers and was made by the
reaction of sodium polysulfide with an organic
dichloride.
Silicone rubber (or Si Rubber) is the most commonly used
synthetic ruuber or polymer. This rubber has similar bond
structure as found in glass, sand and quartz. Silicone rubber is
composed of silicone- which is itself a polymer- together with
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. This is a unique synthetic
elastomer which is made from a cross-linked polymer that is
reinforced with silica. The characteristic of silicone rubber is
such that it provides the perfect balance of mechanical and
chemical properties that is required in today's most demanding
industrial rubber applications.
Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is the outcome of synthetic
rubber research that took place in the United States and Europe
under the impact of the shortage of natural rubber during World
Wars I and II. In 1929, a German chemist developed a series of
synthetic elastomers by copolymerization of two compounds
(styrene and butadiene) in the presence of a catalyst. The first
step involved in the process is to let styrene and butadiene react
together. The new synthetic rubber that was formed consists of
about 25% styrene, with butadiene making up the rest, which in
principle had the same properties as natural rubber. These rubber
is considered to be the highest volume general purpose and the
most common type of synthetic rubber.
Natural Rubber Process
Description
Methods of processing latex into commercial
grades of dry natural rubber and into
concentrated latex.
The operating temperature range for NR is

-55...+70 °C.
These rubber trees show the diagonal scars of tapping patches. Such
plantations can yield rubber for many years, but unfortunately, this
plantation replaced rain forest.
Each night a rubber tapper must remove a thin layer of bark along a downward half
spiral on the tree trunk. If done carefully and with skill, this tapping panel will yield
latex for up to 5 years. Then the opposite side will be tapped allowing this side to heal
over. The spiral allow the latex to run down to a collecting cup. The work is done at
night so the latex will run longer before drying out.
As the cut is made, latex begins oozing from the newly injured laticifers and
running down the spiral cut. Laticifers are a defense mechanism that some
plants have to ward off attack by insects.
At the bottom of the spiral cut a spout in inserted and the latex flow directed into a
glass collection cup held around the tree trunk by a spring. Each tree must be tapped
each night, working by head lamps. Each night a new thin layer of bark is removed
lowering the spiral slightly. The scars seen here represent over 2 months of tapping.
Once each tree is tapped, the worker waits until morning to collect the latex.
The latex is coagulated in metal pans using a dilute acid. This pan is filled
with a soft cake of coagulated latex. As many as 20-30 rubber trees were
tapped to fill this pan.
After coagulation, the cake of raw rubber must be rolled to remove the water
and washed to remove the acid. A worker uses a wooden roller to compress
the rubber and squeeze out the acidic water. The metal covered table slopes so
the water runs off away from the worker. Later the cake will be squeezed
through rollers to finish the process.
After rolling is completed, the sheet of raw rubber is dried on a rack and
smoked over a wood fire. Here a sheet of raw rubber dries next to a sheet of
smoked rubber (left). Smoking stablizes the rubber and in this form it is sold
and transported to manufacturers of rubber products. The texture seen on the
sheet of smoked rubber came from the last set of rollers used.
Advantages of NR:
 good processability
 excellent elastic properties
 good tensile strength
 high elongation
 good tear resistance
 good wear resistance
Advantages of NR:
 little dissipation factor - low heat build-up in
dynamic stress
 excellent cold resistance
 good electrical insulator
 high resistance to water and acids (not to
oxidizing acids)
Disadvantages of NR:
 poor weather and ozone resistance
 restricted high temperature resistance (short-
time maximum temperature 100°C)
 swelling in oils and fuels: low oil and fuel
resistance
Disadvantages of NR:
 unsuitable for use with organic liquids in
general (even though vulcanization
considerably improves swelling resistance),
the major exception being low molecular
weight alcohols
Pictorial Flowchart
Flowchart for Rubber tires
Process Desciption
• The making of automobile tires illustrates
these methods for rubber fabrication. The
Figure gives the essential features and
may be divided into the following unit
operations (Op.) and unit processes (Pr.):
• The crude rubber. after being cut and heated
(Op.). is masticated or broken down in the
Gordon plasticator (Pr.). Plantation rubber is
high in viscosity which is reduced in the
plasticator or the mixer where the relatively high
temperatures cause a breaking up of the larger
rubber molecules into shorter ones (Pr.). GR·S.
now called SBR (Styrene·butadiene rubber). is
normally made to an appreciably lower viscosity
and may not need to be premasticated.
Following this. master batches are made and
blended in a Banbury mixer (on the next figure)
wherein the rubber is compounded (q.v.) according
to the planned-for use (Op.). In natural rubber
compounding. the ingredients which make
possible the chemicai reaction known as
vulcanization (Pr.) are zinc oxide. a fatty acid (e.g.
stearic acid) and the vulcanizing agent. which
usually is sulfur or sulfur-bearing complex organic
compounds together with accelerators.
• The addition of carbon black. mineral
fillers. softeners. antioxidants. etc .. is
primarily aimed at the end-product
requirements (Op.). The carbon black
imparts toughness and improves abrasion
resistance.
From the Banbury mixer the rubber gOl:!S through
a sheet-out mill (Op.) and the products therefrom
are the various _types of mixed stock. For certain
rubber compounds. the initial master batches are
further compounded in a second Banbury or on
rolls with additional ingredients to furnish the
needed mixed stocks for the actual tire
manufacture (Op.). According to the nature of the
tire to be manufactured. the appropriate mixed
stocks (rubber compounds) are warmed up.
extruded for treads and sidewalls or calendered on
previously rubber-dipped cords or fabrics of rayon.
nylon. or cotton for the bias-cut cord "plies" (Op.).
Parts for the tire manufacture are: rubber- coated
steel beads. green treads. sidewalls. latex-dipped
and skim-coated impregnated tire·cord fabric (for
white-wall tires. particularly made products are
needed). All are assembled on a revolvable
collapsible metal building drum (Op.), a special
machine on which the parts for the tire are combined
into a hollow cylinder. These cylinders are dusted
and formed around a bag into a doughnut·shaped
product (Op.) which is taken to curing presses for
vulcanization and final molding (Pr.). These two
procedures may be carried out together in the new
Bag-o.matic presses.
The vulcanized (or cured) tire has .the bag
removed, is painted and inspected (Op.). Inner
tubesl are made by extruding a continuous tube
of compounded butyl rubber, cutting this into
proper lengths, applying a prefabricated valve,
and splicing the tube ends together to form a ring.
After the tube is inflated to stretch it into a
doughnut shape, it is vulcanized in a curing mold.
Machines/Equipments
Charge Heater
The typical refinery contains one or
more Crude Heaters which serve as
"fractionator feed heaters" or
Charge Heaters for the Crude (or
Atmospheric) Distillation Column.
The desalted crude oil is first
preheated in a series of heat
exchangers, utilizing waste heat
from other parts of the refinery. It
Houdry Reactor is one
of the most important
conversion processes used in
petroleum refineries. It is
widely used to convert the
high-boiling, high-molecular
weight hydrocarbon fractions
of petroleum crude oils into
more valuable gasoline,
olefinic gases, and other
products.
Quench systems are used in vent
disposal systems for the treatment of
streams that can not be discharged
directly to atmosphere or where
continuing reaction is taking place.
The process involves the mixing of a
solvent with the relief stream. This
results in the condensation and
removal of volatile components from
the relief stream and / or the cooling
of the vent stream which prevents
further reaction from taking place.
HC Compressor
A depropanizer is a
distillation column that is used
in the natural gas industry to
isolate propane from a mixture
containing butane and other
heavy components.A
depropanizer is a distillation
column that is used in the
natural gas industry to isolate
propane from a mixture
containing butane and other
heavy components.
OTHER MAJOR EQUIPMENT
Cold feed extruders Dispersion kneader
Hydraulic rubber press Rubber calender machine
machine
Rubber cutters Rubber cutting machine
Rubber extruder Rubber kneader
machines
Rubber mixers Rubber mixing mill
Rubber press Rubber processing
machinery
Rubber reclaim machine Rubber strainer machine
Rubber vulcanizer Tire recycling equipment
Tire shredders Tyre building machine
Tyre pyrolysis plant Tyre retreading plant
Vulcanizing machine Waste tyre recycle plant
Machine and equipments
 Cold Feed Extruders (CFE) are built with
specially designed screws ideal for cold
feeding of rubber. For an extensive range of
compound and extrusion applications,
manufacturers can be contacted to avail
multiple screw options. Damage to the screw
or barrel can be prevented by using a feeding
conveyor with a metal detector to eliminate
metal particles when feeding the
cold rubber. Every CFE includes a Temperature
Controller Unit (TCU) that is responsible for
controlling barrel temperature, securing shape
and size of extruded products are uniform.
Variants of cold feed extruders include: 1) Plain

Barrel Type Cold Feed Extruder –
comes with a plain barrel and is best-suited for
production of hoses, blanks, fluorocarbon
rubber, butyl rubber, and more. 2) Pin Barrel
Type Cold Feed Extruder – features 80-100 pins
protruding out of the barrel towards the screw
center for enhanced mixing and dispersion of
rubber while being kneaded between the barrel
and screw. This variant yields processed rubber
with exceptional
homogeneity and quality, making it a universal
extruder for multiple rubber compound
formulations. 3) Vent Type Cold Feed Extruder –
includes a custom-built screw and a degassing
barrel with vacuum pump for manufacture of
non-porous profiles and hoses.
 Dispersion Kneaders made available by us
are precision designed for achieving high
durability, ease of use as well as versatility it
brings in the process. Finding usage in cutting
rubber bales in different sizes, these
Dispersion Kneaders are designed for
achieving accurate mixing variety of materials
that range from
 Low viscosity adhesive
 High viscosity polymers
Finding equal usage in Rubber and Plastic
industries, these Dispersion kneaders are also
designed to deliver perfect control in mixing and
blending of raw material. This ensures forming
of uniform compound mixture, thus ensuring
better dispersion. Superior
performance, the machines also feature a mixing
chamber made of high grade steel fitted with
rotary blade. The presence of Pneumatically or
Hydraulically controlled pressure lid also helps
to maintain pressure on raw material during
mixing.
 Hydraulic rubber press machine
is a high performance, low investment, accurate
and reliable method of compression moulding
designed specifically for the rubber industry.
 A advanced system providing high quality
production and control
 A cost-cutting and environmentally friendly
solution as material wastage is kept to a
minimum especially when used in conjunction
with a Barwell Preformer
 A robust and superior press that is
manufactured using premium quality
components and materials
 Operator-friendly and fully programmable
reducing set-up time and increasing production
capacity
 A fully supported solution with installation,
training, servicing and spares options available
 A bespoke solution that can be tailored to the
requirements of the processor
 An exceptionally safe method of production
which virtually eliminates risk of operator
injury
 and construction
 Heating circuit c/w programmable alarms
 Programmable vent breathing and bump action
for high quality production and greater control
 High quality Rexroth & Yuken hydraulics
 High quality Omron PLC / HMI
Features
 Simple plug and play installation
 Built to last with high quality components
 Rubber calender machine
The major application of rubber calendering
machine is to press the mixed and refined rubber
mixture It also can be applied to rubber sheets in
single or double sticking or topping operations
with textile fabricas.
During the sheeting process, the rubber calender

machine can force out the air existed in the
material for producing the product
without air bubble after vulcarization. The
more quantity of rolls the calender has, the
more times of sheets are pressed, that enable
the calender produce high quality and uniform
thickness of sheets.
Designed and manufactured a variety of roll

arrangement for choice, they are well suited
for manufacturing of PVC sheets, synthetic
rubber, rubber/EVA layer in sponge bottom
insole, tire topping, ball tubes and shoes.
Ruggedly constructed throughout, High

accuracy, maximum durability, Simple operation.
You get a superior calendaring effect with the G
G Calender machine.
 Rubber Bale Cutter
These machines are widely used for cutting
rubber bales in different sizes. The steel
hardened rollers ensure smooth movement of the
bale through the machine. Semi and fully
automatic cutters are perfectly suitable for
toughest natural and synthetic rubber bales.
 DISPERSION MIXER
Excellent performance of dispersion enables
various kind of materials to mix, from low to
high hardness.
Not only rubber, plastic or ceramic but Nano-
level compound can be applicable
 Mixing Mill
It is used for rubber mixing, warming, sheeting
and plastic mixing, etc.
Mixing mill is the oldest and simplest type of
mixing machine. In laboratory work, small
mixing mills are very useful for mixing and
processing rubber compounds, but in the
industrial process mixing mill operation is
dirty, time consuming and provides a poor
working environment.
Mixing mill operation is therefore only used to a
limited extent. When mixing on a mill, the
polymer is placed between the rolls and is
processed until it forms an even belt around one
of the rolls with a certain amount of excess
compound where the rolls meet.
Then fillers, plasticizers and other chemicals are
gradually added to the “mixing zone” between the rolls.
Some chemicals fall down into the tray underneath the
mill and must then be fed into the mixing mill again.
Finally, when all the non-curative ingredients have been
incorporated, curing agents and accelerators are added.
 Features
– Excellent results even with hard-to-mix materials.
– Fillers can be mixed with a variety of materials
quickly and easily.
– Compounds are produced with exceptional
uniformity.
– Materials are intensively mixed by the pressure lid
so that polymers are bonded with fillers more
effectively, improving filling ratios.
– Applications
– Rubber product for Automobile (Oil seal,
Body seal, Gasket, Belt, Hose, Tube)
– Electric wires (Rubber, Plastic, Wire
harness)
– Belt (Power transmission belt, Conveyor
belt)
• Roll (Rubber, Plastic, Printing, Copying
machine)
• Rubber product for Medical (Plug, Cap,
Glove, Dental)
• Sporting goods (Golf ball, Athletic ball)
• Food (Chewing gum)
Pollution and abatement
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF NATURAL
RUBBER PROCESSING SECTOR
Despite the numerous benefits that are rendered

to the modernization of this world by natural
rubber, the consequence of natural rubber
processing has yet provide a serious
problem due to its highly polluted effluents. The
rapid growth of this industry generates large
quantities of effluents coming from its
processing operations which is really a big
problem because of its wastewater contains high
biological oxygen demand and ammonia.
Without proper treatment, discharge of
wastewater from rubber processing industry to
the environment may cause serious and long
lasting consequences.
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
 High concentration of BOD, COD, & SS
Wastewater discharged from latex rubber
processing usually contains high level of BOD,
COD and SS .These characteristics vary from
country to country due to difference in raw latex
and applied technique in the process. The main
source of the
pollutants is the coagulation serum, field latex
coagulation, and skim latex coagulation. These
compounds are readily biodegradable and this
will result in high oxygen consumption upon
discharge of wastewater in receiving surface
water.
 Acidic effluent
It is noted by Pandey et. al. (1990) that the
effluent from latex rubber processing industries
is basically acidic in nature. Different extents of
acid usage in the different factories attribute to
pH variation of different effluent. Due to the use
of acid in latex coagulation, the effluent
discharged
from latex rubber factories is acidic and re-
dissolves the rubber protein. The effluent
comprises mainly of carbonaceous organic
materials, nitrogen and sulfate. The quantity of
acid used for coagulation of the latex,
specifically in skim latex after centrifugation
operation, is generally found to be higher than
the actual requirement.
 High concentration of ammonia and nitrogen
compounds
The high concentration of ammonia presents in
the latex concentrate effluent posed another
serious threat to the environment. Most of the
concentrated latex factories in the South of
Thailand discharge treated wastewater that
contains high level of nitrogen & ammonia to a
nearby river or canals leading to a water
pollution problem. If high level of ammonia is
discharged to water bodies, it could lead to
death of some aquatic organisms living in the
water. Land treatment system has been
conducted to treat and utilize nitrogen in treated
wastewater from the concentrated latex factory.
 High level of sulfate
The effluent from latex concentrate factories
contains high level of sulfate which originated
from sulfuric acid used in the coagulation of
skim latex. The high level of sulfate in this
process can cause problem in the biological
anaerobic treatment system as high levels of H2S
will be liberated to the environment and
generates malodor problem.
The free H2S also inhibits the digestion process,
which gives lower organic removal efficiency
(Yeoh et. al., 1993).
 High level of odor
The odor causing compound such as hydrogen
sulfide, ammonia, amines, can be produced by
many of wastewater treatment process. Most
odor of organic nature arises from the anaerobic
decomposition of compounds containing
nitrogen and sulfur (Dague, 1972; Henry, 1980).
The odor is detectable even at extremely low
concentrations and makes water unpalatable
for several hundred miles downstream from the
rubber plants. The problems presents varies
considerably depending on the plant site, the
raw material used, and the number of
intermediary product.
WASTE DISPOSAL MEASURES

WASTE TREATMENT PRACTICES
The waste treatment practices may change
accordingly to the characteristics of effluent
discharges and allowable limitations. Waste
treatment practices include practices for
wastewater treatment, air pollution control and
solid management.
Of all environmental issues generated from this
industry, wastewater is the major problem with
a wide range of effects on human health and
environmental health. Air pollution and solid
management are not major problems hence in
this paper we mainly focus on wastewater
treatment practices.
 Wastewater treatment practices
Wastewater collected from rubber processing
factory contains a variety of substances as well
as the commercially important constituent, in
this case rubber hydrocarbon. It contains
proteins, minerals, non-rubber hydrocarbons
and carbohydrates. This wastewater has high
concentration of ammonia, BOD5, COD, Nitrate,
Phosphorus as well as total solids.
Moreover, the wastewater from latex
concentrate and skim crepe industry contains
sulfate which comes from sulfuric acid in the
skimming process and in some processes
produce rather high content of zinc and
cadmium. Wastewater treatment practices can
be mentioned as pollution abatement. Pollution
abatement involves (a) in-plant control of waste
and (b) end-process treatment of wastewater.
Some in-plant control measures can be
introduced to enable reduction in consumption
of water, generation of pollutants and to
increase the efficiency of the end-of-process
wastewater treatment.
 In-plant control measures
In the crepe and crumb rubber units, in which
field coagulum is processed, high required
water quantity is generally used for soaking and
also the soaking time allowed is not adequate. If
the raw scrap rubber is properly soaked and
primary dirt removal is done by scrap-washer,
the quantity of water consumed in milling can
be reduced. In the crumb units,
wastewater from final milling can be collected
separately from the effluent of the other milling
section and can be used either for soaking the
scrap rubber or for the first milling process.
This is comparatively clean and the amount of
reduction can be up to 25% of the total water
consumption.
In centrifuge machine bowl, washing is done at
the interval of 3-4 hours to remove the sludge.
About 0.5% rubber is lost during this washing
step. To reduce loss, washing step can be done
at two stages. The first washing which is more
concentrated may be segregated and collected in
a separate tank and coagulated for recovery of
the rubber lost during washing. This will result
in reduction of pollution load in the effluent.
The possibility of diverting this waste stream
into the skim coagulation tank can also be
considered.
The quantity of acid used for coagulation of the
latex, especially skim latex kit after
centrifugation stage is generally found to be
higher than the actual requirement. The time
needed in coagulation tank is also less. The
incomplete coagulation results in the loss of
rubber particles into the effluent along with the
skim serum. The excess acid not only causes
acidic effluent but also re-dissolves the rubber
protein and causes delay in coagulation. Hence,
it is suggested that proper acid concentration
applied and sufficient coagulation time should
be provided to obtain more or less clear liquid
after complete coagulation. The skim latex if
de-ammoniated before coagulation, acid
requirement can be reduced and the ammonia
concentration in effluent may also be reduced.
In the latex process units the segregated first
washing of the coagulum may be diverted to the
skim coagulum tank where after skim coagulum
recovery, the effluent may join the other
wastewater streams.
 End of process treatment
Basically wastewater treatment can be divided
into pretreatment, primary treatment, secondary
treatment, and tertiary treatment.
 Pretreatment
The rubber trap used for arresting suspended
matters should have holding capacity of at least
12 hours with proper baffles to induce
continuous up and down flow pattern. If
designed properly, this can reduce suspended
solids by 40 to 60%. The equalization tank
should have at least one day detention time. It is
preferred to have two equalization tanks, each
of them with one day detention time.
 Primary treatment
For a latex processing unit, effluent from the
equalization tank to be sent for neutralization
and chemical treatment by alum and iron salt
(about 200 mg/l). Combined wastewater of
latex process units also needs neutralization by
using of lime and settling of suspended solids
by using of coagulants. Thesettler/clarifier
should have adequate detention time for
removal of
suspended solids. The sludge may be taken to
sludge drying beds for dewatering. The
dewatering of sludge produced by primary
clarifier is normally carried out on belt or
vacuum filters which raises the sludge
consistency from 20 to 40%.
 Secondary treatment
Following the primary treatment, the effluent
should be subjected to the biological treatment.
If sufficient land area is not available, then the
effluent after primary settling may be subjected
to an extended aeration activated sludge type
biological treatment process.
Before going for biological treatment, it must be
ensured that:
(a) All the in-plant control measures are
adopted,
(b) Primary treatment e.g. rubber trap
equalization neutralization and clarification
steps are incorporated.
The above measures will reduce substantial
quantity of pollutants particularly BOD and
suspended solids. The primary treated effluent
can be treated in a secondary/biological
treatment unit. It is envisaged to render
secondary treatment by adoption of extended
aeration activated sludge process. The
biological treated effluents should be settled in a
secondary settling tank.
If there is no constraint of land, the biological
treatment could be anaerobic followed by
aerobic pond system with the proper
dimensions, holding capacity and adequate
detention time (10 to 15 days) for anaerobic
pond followed by 5 to 10 days for aerobic
ponding system. The type of soil and proximity
to the wastewater and groundwater table
condition should be taken into consideration
before going for these
treatment systems. Protective lining is
recommended to eliminate any risk.
In place of the anaerobic-aerobic system, an
oxidation ditch of detention time of 2-3 days
can also be considered as an alternative for
treating the effluents of the crumb rubber unit.
Depending on the real conditions of countries
and specific processes, some units of wastewater
treatment are modified and adjusted to have
better efficiency. For example, most of the latex
concentrate factories in the South of Thailand
discharge treated wastewater that contains high
level of nitrogen to a nearby river or canals
leading to a water pollution problem.
Land treatment system is used to treat and
utilize nitrogen in treated wastewater from the
concentrated latex factory. The land treatment
system resulted high removal efficiency for
nitrogen. In recent years, many studies were
carried out to treat wastewater from this industry
by biological methods such as ASP (activated
sludge process) and use of oxygenic
phototrophic bacteria for treating latex rubber
sheet wastewater. These studies aim at
improving the efficient treatment of wastewater
from this industry and contribute to partially
reduce the emission of toxic gases into the
environment.
 Tertiary treatment
The remaining components after primary and
secondary treatment are residual SS, residual
BOD, odor and hydrocarbon. Tertiary treatment
designed to remove these components are
generally carbon adsorption, massive lime
treatment and foam separation, mainly for
treatment of Residual Refractory Organics.
ADVANCED RUBBER WASTEWATER
TREATMENT METHODS
Currently, several effective methods have been

used for treatment of rubber wastewater in
Thailand which makes natural rubber industry
more environmentally friendly and
economically viable. In response to problems
associated with rubber wastewater and its effect
on the Malaysian’s environment, further
research can be performed to develop the novel
methods for treatment of this wastewater. As
follow some inventive technologies that were
used in Thailand and Malaysia will be
described.
 Natural process
A constructed wetland is an artificial marsh or
swamp that includes substrate, vegetation and
biological organisms contained within a
physical configuration. Suitability designed and
operated wetlands have considerable potential
for lowcost, efficient and self maintaining
wastewater treatment systems.
This system has demonstrated capability to
remove nutrients, suspended solids, organic
compounds, pathogens and metallic ions and to
increase oxygen and pH levels in wastewater. In
comparison to conventional systems, lagoons or
land application flow, wetlands waste treatment
systems require fewer amounts of capital and
operating costs, minimal operator training and
land area.
Puetpaiboon studied the possibility of treat
wastewater from a rubber sheet factory in
Thailand using the pilot-scale experiment
constructed wetland (CW). This system
consisted of vertical flow constructed wetlands
(VF) followed by subsurface flow constructed
wetlands (SSF) with nut grass(Cyperus
rotundus Linn.) plantation.
The tested COD loadings in this experiment
were 500, 750, 1000 and 1250 kg COD/ha.d.
The results showed that the best removal
efficiency of BOD5, COD, SS and TKN were
99, 99, 93.6 and 97.8%, respectively, using VF
followed by SSF with nut grass (C. rotundus
Linn.) plantation at 750 kg COD/ha.d.
 Biological method
One of the extensively used methods for
removal of dissolved and colloidal organics in
wastewater is the activated sludge process. This
system changes the dissolved and colloidal
organic contaminants to a biological sludge
which can be removed by settling. After a
primary settling basin,
usually use an activated sludge process as a
secondary treatment. Ratanachai and
Chevakidagarn surveyed two rubber treatment
plants, which are single-stage activated sludge
process in Songkhla, Thailand.
They reported that the suspended solids removal
capacities were low (from 78 to 87%).
The treatment plants often had bulking and
rising sludge problems because of insufficient
oxygen concentrations. Thus, it is recommended
that an appropriate oxygen control system to be
included in this system for the rubber industry to
ensure sufficient oxygen is provided. This will
assist in compliance with the effluent standards.
Chevakidagarn also upgraded the operation of
conventional activated sludge treatment plants
to save aeration energy and at the same time to
provide better utilization of existing plant
capacity for nutrient removal without major
financial investment. The first stage of the
experiments was to observe the possibility of
using oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) for
aeration control in treatment plant fed
with the wastewater from the latex rubber
industry. The results proved that the ORP was
greatly affected by the change in air supply.
However, it was also affected by the fluctuation
of wastewater temperature, which contributed
to the bulking sludge problem. In another study,
Chevakidagarn used surrogate parameters for
rapid monitoring of contaminant removed for
activated sludge treatment plant for rubber and
seafood industries in Southern Thailand. UV
absorbency at various wavelengths was used in
this study as surrogate parameters, for
predicting the removal capacity of each plant.
The results showed that UV absorbency at 220
nm can be used as a parameter to predict nitrate
nitrogen concentrations which less than 15
mg/l. Also, it was found that 550 and 260 nm
are suitable wavelengths for predicting of
suspended solids concentration and COD. In
generally, aerated lagoon or activated sludge
can reduce fault smell of rubber wastewater but
have a high consumption of electricity and
relatively high investment and operation costs.
 Chemical methods
Electrochemical methods: Longer hydraulic
retention time is needed for treatment of rubber
wastewater by conventional biological methods
and sometimes exposure to failures if shock
loaded. Recently, much more attention has been
drawn to electrochemical method for treatment
of wastewater due to the cost, ease of control
and the increased efficiencies provided by the
use of new electrode material and compact
biopolar electrochemical reactor. The
electrochemical treatment methods are preferred
as the less required of hydraulic retention
time.These systems are not successful because
of variation in wastewater strength or due to the
existence of toxic material. Generation of
chlorine or hypochlorous acid is the best
alternative method for performing the
electrolytic treatment. Therefore, there is a
considerable interest for developing a new
method of wastewater treatment based on in situ
hypochlorous acid generation as a kind of
electrochemical. An electrolytic cell including of
graphite as anode and stainless sheets as cathode
was providing the hypochlorous acid. For
organic destruction of the rubber wastewater
used, the produced hypochlorous acid acts as an
oxidizing agent. The results showed the
efficiency of 99.9 and 98.8% for COD and
BOD removal. Moreover, it has been indicated
that pH 7.3; TOC 45 mg/l; residual total
chlorine 136 mg/l; turbidity 17 NTU and
temperature 54EC can be obtained by this
system for an influent with the initial pH 4.5;
current density of 74.5mA/cm2; sodium
chloride content 3% and electrolysis period of
90 min, respectively.
At the same condition and up to 2% of sodium
chloride concentration, 95.7 and 88.6% of COD
and BOD removal, pH 7; TOC 90 mg/l; residual
total chlorine 122 mg/l; turbidity 26 NTU and
temperature 60EC can be achieved.
 Ozonation
Some of the non-biodegradable materials and
also ammonia nitrogen of natural rubber
wastewater cannot be completely removed
using biological process. Therefore, the organic
contents of effluent are above those of the
standard limits. It is generally approved that
ozonation transforms refractory or poorly
degradable organic materials into by-product
with smaller molecular size. Moreover, it has
been found that ammonia can be converted to
nitrate by ozonation which usually makes
biodegradability. Rungruang and Babel (2008)
studied the efficiency of batch activated sludge
process (BAS) with or without ozonation for
rubber wastewater treatment at Chonburi,
Thailand. The effects of different contact times
(0 – 90 min) and ozone dosages
(37.20, 56.90 and 66.44 mg O3/L O2) at
various pH (7.4, 9.0 and 11.0) on wastewater
treatment were studied. As a result, it was found
that 66.44 mg O3/ L O2 of ozone dosage; pH of
9.0 and 30 min of contact time are the optimum
conditions for reduction of pollutants. It has been
found that the combination of BAS and
ozonation makes higher removal efficiency for
all parameters compared to another system
 Air pollution control
In production process, a mixture of poisonous
gases is generated from coagulation of rubber
and latex. It should be controlled and reduced
by activated carbon treatment. Chimney gases
should be controlled technically, otherwise it
might affect the growth of agricultural plants in
the fields. Besides, foul smell due to wastewater
drainage is a problem and it is difficult to
control. It can be reduced by applying in-plant
measures or cleaner production such as
reducing the amount of wastewater generated
from the process and separating wastewater
from the latex immediately when discharged.
Most rubber factories in Songkhla province,
Thailand have been forced to use activated
sludge process or aerated lagoon to prevent the
bad smell from the anaerobic condition.
Air pollution control is related to wastewater
treatment methods. Hence, air pollution control
can be obtained by controlling and treating
wastewater from production process. invention
of electrostatic precipitator(ESP) is very useful
in trapping the smoke particles and aerosols that
are very harmful. though the efficiency of ESP
start decreasing as the smoke particles start
accumulating in the electrode and its removal
becomes important. Even rather than relying
more on the wood burning we can make
optimum use of the environmental friendly
sunlight to dry the rubber sheets and even the
discharge of smoke can be controlled their by
regulating the energy usage.
CONCLUSION
Environmental situation in rubber production

varies according to the nature of each industry.
In rubber sheet drying industry, smoke particles
contribute to pollution in workplace and
neighboring atmosphere. The high
concentration of aerosol particles in the
atmosphere can cause adverse effects on the
workers health. And also waste water effluents
are also a serious concern as they contain highly
toxic substances which if not treated properly
can cause havoc to not only environment but
also to humans. So we have studied some
popular methods implemented in the major
rubber producing countries
like Thailand and Malaysia which we can adopt
here in our Kerala and their by reduce the
deleterious effects of the chemical substances
involved in the processing of rubber.
Terms and Definition
Terms and definition
• RUBBERS
- a highly elastic solid substance, light cream or
dark amber in color, polymerized by the drying
and coagulation of the latex or milky juice of
rubber trees and plants, especially Hevea and
Ficus species.
• NATURAL RUBBER
- also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as
initially produced, consists of polymers of the
organic compound isoprene, with minor
impurities of other organic compounds, plus
water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the
leading rubber producers. Forms of
polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are
classified as elastomers.
• CHARLES GOODYEAR
- developed vulcanization in 1839, although
Mesoamericans used stabilized rubber for balls
and other objects as early as 1600 BC.
• MESOAMERICA
- the first indigenous cultures who used rubber.
• CHARLES MARIE DE LA CONDAMINE

- is credited with introducing samples of rubber
to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France
in 1736
• SIR HENRY NICHOLAS RIDLEY
- because of his fervent promotion of this crop,
he is popularly remembered by the nickname
"Mad Ridley".
• CHALLENGER DISASTER
- "Frozen" rubber's elasticity is low and strain
results from small changes of bond lengths and
angles
• "CURED RUBBER"
- is rubber that has been compounded and
subjected to the vulcanisation process to create
cross-links within the rubber matrix.
• HEVEA BRASILIENSIS
- The major commercial source of natural rubber
latex is the Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis),
a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae.
• CONGO RUBBER
- formerly a major source of rubber, came from
vines in the genus Landolphia
• DANDELION
- milk contains latex. The latex exhibits the same
quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees.
• The term GUM RUBBER
- is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained
version of natural rubber in order to distinguish
it from the synthetic version.
• OENR
- oil-extended natural rubber
• A SYNTHETIC RUBBER
- is any artificial elastomer. These are mainly
polymers synthesised from petroleum by
products.
• SERGEI VASILJEVICH LEBEDEV
A russian scientis synthesized the first rubber
polymer from butadienet that was created in
1910
• TYRES
Man-made rubber is used to manufacture tyres
of various types
• SERGEI LEBEDEV
The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 (from
Russian "Synthetic Kauchuk", Russian: СК-1)
was established (Russia) in Yaroslavl under
Joseph Stalin's First Five-Year Plan on July 7,
1932.
• WALDO SEMON
B.F. Goodrich Company scientist developed a
new and cheaper version of synthetic rubber
known as Ameripol in 1940
• RUBBER PASTE
a synthetic rubber is used a great deal in printing
on textiles
• THE NEOPROPENE
is a polymer which is used as chloroprene,
monomer can resist oil.
• NITRILE RUBBER
is obtained by copolymerization of butadiene
with acrylonitrile, has the particularity to
resist fats, oils and solvents.
• POLYISOPRENE SYNTHESIS
is the artificial rubber which the chemical
composition of ingredients used in its
manufacture has properties identical to
those of natural rubber.
• BUTYL RUBBER
derives from isobutane and copolymers of
isoprene or butadiene does not dissolve
following the action of corrosive chemicals and
resists oxidation.
• FUEL MISSILES
Rubber based fuels were used for launching
missiles during the Second World War.
Plastic Industry
Introduction
• The Development of plastics from laboratory
curiosities to products tailored to industry’s needs
has brought new and economical materials of
construction to the engineer and the designer. Not
only can plastics replace metals and other
materials, but they can also be used with them.
• A plastic may be defined as a material that
contains a polymerized organic substance of large
molecular weight as an essential ingredient, is
solid in its finished state, and at some stage in its
manufacture or its processing into finished articles
can be shaped by flow.
• Plastics lend themselves to an exceeding large
number of applications because of their
toughness, water resistance, excellent resistance to
corrosion, ease of fabrication, and remarkable
color range.
• The use of a plastic material for specific application
is dependent upon its composition, its particular
properties, and the design of the part. Synthetic
resins are the largest source of plastics, with
cellulose derivatives ranking next. All plastic
materials of construction have limitations, but, when
properly selected, they can be used with the degree
of assurance as metals and alloys.
HISTORY
• The development of commercial phenolic resin in
1906 by Baekland was the start of the synthetic
plastic industry. His discovery stimulated the
search for other plastics and resulted in an
industry that has grown to become one of the
nation’s top ten in size. The first plastic of
industrial significance was cellulose nitrate
(Celluloid) and was discovered about the middle
of the nineteenth century. It was first used in 1869
by Hyatt who was searching for an ivory
substitute.
• Cellulose acetate was developed in 1894 as a less
flammable material and was used extensively as a
base for photographic film and as a “dope” for
airplane coverings during World War I. From that
time on, introduction of new polymer materials
was rapid.
• The development of plastics has evolved from the
use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing
gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified,
natural materials (e.g., natural
rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and
finally to completely synthetic molecules
(e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride).
• Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as
egg and blood proteins, which are organic
polymers. In 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used
natural rubber for balls, bands, and
figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as
windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages.
Materials that mimicked the properties of horns
were developed by treating milk-proteins (casein)
with lye.
• In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed
during the Industrial Revolution, many materials
were reported. The development of plastics also
accelerated with Charles Goodyear's discovery
of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived
from natural rubber.
• Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first
man-made plastic. The plastic material was
patented by Alexander Parkes,
In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled
at the 1862 Great International
Exhibition in London. Parkesine won a bronze
medal at the 1862 World's fair in London.
• Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major
component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric
acid as a solvent. The output of the process
(commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxylin)
could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a
transparent and elastic material that could be molded
when heated. By incorporating pigments into the
product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
• In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing
press owner Wilhelm Krische was commissioned
to develop an alternative to blackboards. The
resultant horn-like plastic made from the milk
protein casein was developed in cooperation with
the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler
(1846–1940). The final result was unsuitable for
the original purpose.
• In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat
discovered the means to insolubilize casein by
immersion in formaldehyde, producing material
marketed as galalith.
In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully
synthetic thermoset, was reported by Belgian
chemist Leo Baekeland by using phenol and
formaldehyde.
Auguste Trillat
• After World War I, improvements in chemical
technology led to an explosion in new forms of
plastics, with mass production beginning in the
1940s and 1950s (around World War II). Among
the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers
were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in
the 1930s. and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), first
created in 1872 but commercially produced in the
late 1920s.
• In 1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first
manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins. In
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald
Gibson and Eric Fawcett.
• In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio
Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building
insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented
by Dow Chemical.
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)'s discovery is
credited to employees of the Calico Printers'
Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed
to DuPont for the USA and ICI otherwise, and as
one of the few plastics appropriate as a
replacement for glass in many circumstances,
resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.
Uses and Application
Plastic Usage
• Most modern plastics are based on organic

chemicals which offer a huge range of physical
properties to manufacturers - the range of
formulations is a vast and still growing. There was a
time when anything made of plastic was considered
to be of inferior quality, but those days are past. You
are probably wearing plastic right now - maybe
a polyester/cotton mix garment or even spectacles
or a watch with plastic components.
Why is Plastic Important?
• The versatility of plastic materials comes from the

ability to mold, laminate or shape them, and to
tailor them physically and chemically. There is a
plastic suitable for almost any application.
Plastics do not corrode, though they can degrade
in UV (a component of sunlight) and can be
affected by solvents - for example, PVC plastic is
soluble in acetone.
• However, because many plastics are so durable
and do not corrode, they create considerable
disposal problems. They are not good for the
landfill as many will persist for hundreds of years
and when incinerated, dangerous gases can be
produced. Many supermarkets now give us one-
time grocery bags - leave them in a cupboard for a
year and all you will have left is dust - they are
engineered to degrade.
• We are getting wiser, though, and now many
plastics can be chemically, mechanically or
thermally recycled.
Usage of Plastics in Home
• There is a huge percentage of plastic in your

television, your sound system, your cell phone,
your vacuum cleaner - and probably plastic foam
in your furniture too. What are you walking on?
Your floor covering if it is not real wood probably
has a synthetic/natural fiber blend (just like some
of the clothes you wear).
• Take a look in the kitchen - you may have plastic
chair or bar stool seats, plastic countertops
(acrylic composites, plastic linings (PTFE) in your
non-stick cooking pans, plastic plumbing in your
water system - the list is almost endless. Then go
open the refrigerator!
Usage of Plastics in the Food Industry
• The food in your refrigerator may be wrapped in
PVC cling film, your yogurt is probably in plastic
tubs, cheese in plastic wrap and water and milk
in blow-molded plastic containers. There are
plastics which now prevent gas escaping from
pressurized soda bottles, but cans and glass are
still #1 for beer. For some reason, guys just don't
like to drink beer from plastic. When it comes to
canned beer, though, you will find that the inside
of the can is often lined with a plastic polymer.
Usage of Plastic In Transport
• Trains, planes, and automobiles - even ships,

satellites and space stations all use plastics
extensively. We use to build ships from wood and
planes from a string (hemp) and canvas
(cotton/flax). We had to work with the materials
that nature provided. No more - we now design
our own materials. Whatever mode of transport
you pick you will find plastic is used extensively,
for example:
• Seating
• Panelling
• Instrument enclosures
• Surface coverings
• Plastics are even used in combination with other
materials are used as structural elements in all
kinds of transport. Yes, even skateboards, roller
blades and bicycles.
Application of Plastic
Construction Sector
• The Construction sector is the second highest user

of plastics after packaging.
• Plastics are used in a growing range of
applications in the construction industry. They
have great versatility and combine excellent
strength to weight ratio, durability, cost
effectiveness, low maintenance and corrosion
resistance which make plastics an economically
attractive choice throughout the construction
sector.
• Plastics in construction are mainly used for seals,
profiles (windows and doors), pipes, cables, floor
coverings, and insulation. Potentially, plastics
have further uses as they do not rot, rust or need
regular re-painting, they have strength with lack
of weight, they are easily formable, and their light
weight enables them to be easily transported and
moved on site.
Areas of Use
Piping and Conduit
• Piping and Conduit are the largest users of polymers in

construction and consumes 35% of electricity powers
almost every aspect of our lives, at home and in our
jobs, at work and at play. And everywhere that we find
electricity, we also find plastics. In the kitchen, there
are the labour-saving devices that we wouldn’t be
without; washing machines, microwave ovens, kettles.
Piping and Conduit
• In the living room is the television, the video or
the music system, while at work, we may use a
computer. a fax machine or a telephone. Plastics
make progress possible, making electrical goods
safer, lighter, more attractive, quieter. more
environmentally friendly and more durable.
Cladding and Profiles
• Cladding and profiles for windows, doors, coving,

and skirting made from PVC-U, exterior cladding
using phenolic is replacing timber rather than
traditional resins which have a minimum fire risk.
Cladding and Profile
Insulation
• Insulation is generally produced from Polystyrene

rigid foam which is incorporated into panels or
sandwiched into construction of walls and roofs.
The insulation combines lightness and strength
and is simple to install, and enables contractors to
meet energy conservation regulations.
Seals and Gaskets
• Seals and Gaskets are made from Elastomers

whose main construction use is for weather strips,
aperture seals, gaskets and expansion joints. The
polymers used are chloroprene and EPDM which
have weather ability, resistance to deformation and
retain elasticity, and PVC in windows and doors,
also as a membrane for roofing and linings. In
addition, 250,000 tons of polymers are used as a
base for adhesive systems and sealants.
Seals and Gaskets
Plastics in Electrical and Electronic
Application
• Plastics fall into two broad categories: thermoplastics such
as polyethylene, which can be repeatedly melted down and
remoulded and thermosets such as urea formaldehyde
which, once set, cannot be remelted, making them suitable
for applications where heat is encountered. The UK plastics
industry provides jobs for around 200,000 people and has a
turnover of over £13 billion per annum, In 1992, 367,500
tonnes of plastics were used for electrical and electronic
applications.
Brown Goods
• The stylish appearance of modern VCRs, CD

players, DVD systems, Personal Computers and
TV sets owes much to the design freedom granted
by plastics.
TV , VCD , DVD
White Goods
• Plastics make hygienic and attractive knobs, handles and door
facings on cookers; liners, handles and internal fittings on
refrigerators and freezers; housings and tops on washing
machines and dishwashers.
Small White Goods
 Safety is a key requirement for goods such as food
processors, toasters, kettles and hairdryers - and
plastics make it possible.
Tools
• Filled, impact- and fire-resistant plastics make
tough and durable housings and handles for tools
such as drills, paint-strippers, lawnmowers,
vacuum cleaners and hedge-trimmers.
Office Equipment
• Essential to the modern office are smart and hard

wearing plastic keypads and housings for
telephones, machines photocopiers and
computers.
White Goods, Small white
Goods
What Makes Plastics
Valuable?
Electrical Insulation
• Electricity is essential to our standard of living, a valuable and

versatile servant — but it is also potentially lethal. Plastics do not
conduct electricity and are therefore used in a variety of
applications where their insulating properties are needed. PVC is
widely used to insulate electric wiring, while thermosets (which
can withstand high temperatures) are used for switches, light
fittings and handles. Plastics are especially suited to housings for
goods such as hairdryers, electric razors and food mixers as they
protect the consumer from the risk of electric shock.
Heat Insulation
• Plastics are poor conductors of heat. To reduce the

risk of burns, manufacturers have therefore made
extensive use of plastics, introducing cool-touch
toasters, deep-fat fryers and kettles. To further
protect the consumer, plastics can be made fire
resistant through the use of special flame retardant
additives.
Light Weight
• If you’ve ever lifted an old-fashioned, heavy vacuum cleaner
you can imagine how much harder housework was before
plastics! Substantial weight reductions in tools and equipment
can be made by using plastics. And as they are lighter, they use
less electricity to run —helping the environment as well as
reducing running costs.
Freedom of Design
• Whatever the designer dreams up, plastics can

deliver. They can be any colour — transparent,
translucent or opaque; any texture —matte to
eliminate glare in the office, smooth for easily
cleaned kitchen equipment or non-slip for
handles. Plastics are ideally suited to the
ergodynamic curves which make modern tools
easy and safe to use.
Durable
• Plastics are hygienic, hardwearing and easily

cleaned and maintained. They do not corrode, like
metals, or rot like other organic materials. They
are oil- and acid-resistant, an important property
for tools and can be made shatter-resistant.
Energy Efficient
• Plastics consume just 4% of oil production. They

take less energy — and therefore fossil fuel - to
make than most traditional materials. This makes
them cheaper to make and buy, as well as
benefiting the environment by conserving
resources.
Recyclable
• When products have reached the end of their

useful lives, many of the plastic components can
be recycled, to give them a second life and thus
save energy and raw materials. ICER (see below)
is promoting and developing recycling facilities in
the UK. Waste plastics can also be incinerated in
purpose-built, clean-burning power stations to
generate electricity.
Plastics In Transport
• The cost-effective and safe transportation of people

and goods is vital to our economy. As modern modes
of transport have evolved to meet increasing demands
for safety, environmental protection and speed, the
use of plastics in transport manufacture has risen
dramatically. In 1998, around 390 ktonnes of plastics
were used in transport applications in the UK.
• All forms of transport require energy to run and
fuel represents a substantial part of running costs.
Cutting the weight of cars, aeroplanes, boats and
trains can cut fuel consumption dramatically. The
lightness of plastics therefore makes them
invaluable to the transport industry. 105kg of
plastics, rather than metals, in a car weighing
1,000kg makes possible a fuel saving of up to
7.5%.
• Used externally plastics are durable, do not
corrode and require little maintenance. They allow
freedom of design and fast and economical
manufacture. Internally, plastics fittings, such as
dashboards, flooring, seats and faces, maintain
their attractive appearance and are easy to clean.
Automotive
• More plastics, by volume, than steel are now used in

today's cars for a myriad of components. At the end
of a vehicle's working life, plastics components can
be recycled or the energy can be recovered through
incineration Plastics versatility aids the automotive
industry in meeting ever more stringent
requirements in terms of economical performance,
safety, comfort and environmental considerations.

Aerospace
• The aerodynamic requirements of aerospace

products demand maximum design flexibility and
minimal weight. Plastics can be formulated to meet
a wide variety of specifications and are ideal for
components incorporating smooth curves.
Composites are widely used in the panels of military
jets and helicopters as well as for wing skins,
nacelles, fairings, flaps and helicopter rotor-blades
in commercial applications. Plastics are also found
throughout aircraft interiors in, for example,
bulkheads, galleys, stair units, seating and flooring.
Rail
• Materials used in railway locomotives, carriages

and other rolling stock have to withstand wear and
tear from heavy use. The durability of plastics is
one of the factors making them the first choice for
engine and carriage panels, flooring, luggage
racks, seating and doors.
Marine
• Plastics' ability to withstand a harsh marine environment
makes them essential in all types of marine craft, from ocean
liners to sailing dinghies. Plastics do not corrode or warp and
need less maintenance than other traditional materials to
remain attractive and in good working condition.
Raw Materials
Resin Type Properties Application
Colorless and odorless, low Housewares, medical equipment

density, good heat resistance, (can be sterilized), appliances, toys,
“unbreakable”. Excellent surface electronic components, tubing and
Polypropylene hardness, excellent chemical pipe, fibers and filaments, coatings.
resistance, good electrical
properties.
Excellent resistance to abrasive Pipe and tubing, films and in

slurries, good chemical resistance, blends to lend strength and
tough, better heat resistance than toughness.
Polybutylene polyethylene.
Low coefficient of friction, low Electrical insulation, mechanical

permeability, low moisture seals, gaskets, linings for chemical
absorption, exceptional chemical equipment, bearings, frying pan,
Fluorocarbons inertness, low dielectric strength. coating, cryogenic applications.
Excellent physical properties, Pipe and tubing, pipe fittings,
excellent chemical resistance, ease of adhesive, raincoats and baby pants,
Polyvinyl Chloride processing, relatively low cost, self building panels, wastepaper baskets,
extinguishing, ability to be weather stripping, shoes.
compounded with other resins.
Crystal clarity, outstanding Decorative and structural panels,

weatherability, fair chemical massive glazing domes, automotive
resistance, good impact and tensile lens systems, illuminated translucent
Acrylics strength, resistant to ultraviolet floor tiles, windows and canopies,
exposure. signs, coating, adhesive, elastomers.
Low cost, ease of processing; Insulation, pipe, foams, cooling

excellent resistance to acid, alkalies, towers, thin walled containers,
Polystyrene salts; softened by hydrocarbons; appliances, rubbers, automotive
excellent clarity; versatility. instruments and panels.
Outstanding toughness, high impact Textile and paper finishes, thickening

strength, high dielectric strength, low agents, magnetic tapes, packaging,
Cellulosics thermal conductivity, high surface pipe.
luster
Good strength, heat stability, and Impregnating resins, brake lining,
impact resistance, high resistance rubber resins, electrical components,
Phenolics to chemical corrosion and structural board, laminates, glues,
moisture penetration, adhesive binders, mold.
machinability.
Good heat resistance, solvent and Molding compounds, adhesive

chemical resistance, extreme laminating resins, paper coating,
Aminos surface hardness, resistance to textile treatments, plywood,
discoloration. dinnerware, decorating structures.
Extreme versatility in processing, Construction, auto repair putty,

excellent heat, chemical and laminates, fishing rods, boats and
flame resistance, low cost, aircraft components, coatings,
Polyesters excellent mechanical and decorative fixtures, bottles.
electrical properties.
Excellent electrical and thermal Electrical insulation, electronic

properties, versatility in flexibility components, putty, glass reinforced
or rigidity, good chemical parts, paints.
Alkyds resistance.
High refractive index, excellent Replacem
Polycarbonates chemical, electrical and thermal helmets,
properties, dimensional stability, compone
transparent, self extinguishing, casting in
resistant to staining, good creep
resistance.
Tough, strong and easily moldable, Unlubric

Polyamiders light abrasion resistant, low appliance
coefficient of friction, good tires, wat
chemical resistance, self bottles.
extinguishing.
High Temperature resistance Reinforc
Aromatic Polyamides
High Temperature Resistance

Polyimides
Extreme versatility when combined Insulation foam inner liners for
Polyurethanes with other resins, good physical, clothing, rocket fuel binders,
chemical, and electrical properties. elastomers, adhesives.
Excellent corrosion resistance to Coatings, pump gears, water meter

common acids, alkalies and salt, parts, bearing surfaces, valves.
can be seam welded and machined
Polyethers to fit any type, shape, or size of
structure.
Excellent chemical resistance, good Laminates, adhesive, flooring,
Epoxies adhesion properties, strong and linings, propellers, surface
tough with low shrinkage during coatings, filament wound
cure, excellent electrical properties, stuctures(rocket cases).
good heat resistance.
Good thermal and oxidative Mold release agent, rubbers,
Silicones stability, flexible, excellent laminates, encapsulating resins and
electrical properties, general foaming agents, water resistant
inertness. uses.
Excellent toughness, abrasion Skin and blister packaging, heel
resistance, and transparency, lifts, shoes, ski boots, automobile
outstanding low temperature bumpers, gulf ball covers.
Lonomers flexural properties.
Ease in molding, good heat Surface coatings, adhesives,

stability, low mold shrinkage, self binders, electronic parts.
extinguishing, good cold flow.
Phenoxies
Excellent chemical resistance, low Surface coatings, adhesives,

power factor, poor mechanical binders, electronic parts.
strength, outstanding moisture
Polyethylene vapor resistance, wide degree of
flexibility.
Excellent resistance to both acids Laminates, coatings, impregnants,

and bases, good adhesive linings for rocket fuel tanks, floor
properties. tiles, abrasive wheels.
Furanes
• Picture of raw materials
Phenol
• Phenol has been made

over the years by a
variety of processes.
Many of the companies
producing it use in
internally and do not sell
it on the open market.
Formaldehyde
• is a naturally occurring organic compound with

the formula CH2O (H-CHO). It is the simplest of
the aldehydes (R-CHO) and is also known by
its systematic name methanol. The common name of
this substance comes from its similarity and relation
to formic acid.
Phenol Formaldehyde
• Phenol Formaldehyde or Phenolic resins are synthetic

polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted
phenol with formaldehyde. Used as the basis for Bakelite,
PFs were the first commercial synthetic resins (plastics).
They have been widely used for the production of molded
products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and
as coatings and adhesives.
Urea
• Also known as carbamide, is an organic compound. This
amide has two groups joined by carbonyl functional group.
Urea Formaldehyde
• Also known as urea methanol, is a non transparent

thermosetting resin or polymer. It is produced form urea and
formaldehyde. These resins are used in adhesives, finishes,
particle board and molded objects. UF and related amino
resins of are a class of thermosetting resins of which urea
formaldehyde resins make up to 80% produced globally.
Examples of amino resins use include in automobile tires to
improve the bonding of rubber to tire cord, in paper for
improving tear strength in molding electrical devices, etc.
Hexamethylenetetramine
• Hexamethylenetetramine or methenamine is a heterocyclic
organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This
white crystalline compound is highly soluble in water and
polar organic solvents. It has a cage-like structure similar
to adamantane.
Phthalic Anhydride
• is the organic
compound with
the formula C6H4(CO)2O.
It is
the anhydride of phthalic
acid. Phthalic anhydride is
a principal commercial
form of phthalic acid.
Methyl Acrylate
• is an organic compound, more accurately the methyl

ester of acrylic acid. It is a colourless liquid with a
characteristic acrid odor. It is mainly produced to
make acrylate fiber, which is used to weave synthetic
carpets.
Methyl Methacrylate
• Methacrylates are
common monomers i
n polymer plastics,
forming the acrylate
polymers.
Other Raw Materials
Natural Products
• Cellulose, the structural material of the plant world, is
itself a polymer composed of 50 to 100 units of the
disaccharide cellobiose. Cellobiose on hydrolysis yields
two molecules of glucose and is similar to maltose.
However, maltose is an alpha glucoside while cellobiose
is beta glucoside.
Plasticizers
• Plasticizers are organic compounds added to plastics to
improve workability during fabrication, to extend or modify
the natural properties of the plastics, and to develop new and
improved properties not present in the original resin.
Plasticizers reduce the viscosity and make shaping and
forming easier. They also impart flexibility and other desired
properties to the finished product.
Fillers and Reinforcements
• Many materials may be added to plastics to increase strength,
thermal conductivity, resistance to heat distortion, and lower
thermal expansion.
Pictorial Flow Chart
Other Examples of Flow Chart
Phthalic Anhydride
Process Description
• Those methods used to convert plastics materials in the form
of pellets, granules, powders, sheets, fluids, or preforms into
formed shapes or parts. The plastics materials may contain a
variety of additives which influence the properties as well as
the process
ability of the plastics. After forming, the part may be subjecte
d to a variety of ancillary operations such as welding ,
adhesive bonding, machining, and surface decorating (painti
ng, metallizing).
Extrusion
• In this process, plastic pellets or granules are fluidized, h
omogenized, and continuously formed. Products made th
is way include tubing, pipe, sheet, wire and substrate
coatings, and profile shapes.
• The process is used to form very long shapes ora l
arge number of small shapes which can be cut fro
m the long shapes. Extrusion can result in the high
est output rate of any
plastics processes; for example, pipe has been for
med at rates of 2000 lb/h (900 kg/h). The extrusio
n process produces pipeand tubing by forcing the
melt through a cylindrical die.
Blow Molding
• This process consists of forming a tube (called a parison) and i
ntroducing air or other gas to cause the tube to expand into a
free-
blown hollow object or against a mold for forming into a hollo
w object with a definite size and shape. The parison is
traditionally made by extrusion, although injection-
molded tubes have increased in use.
Thermoforming
• Thermoforming is the forming of plastics sheets into part
s through the application of heat and pressure. Tooling fo
r thisprocess is the most inexpensive compared to other
plastics processes, accounting for the method's popularit
y. It can alsoaccommodate very large parts as well as sm
all parts.
Rotational Molding
• In this process, finely ground powders are heated in a rotating
mold until melting or fusion occurs. If liquid materials are use
d,
the process is often called slush molding. The melted or fused
resin uniformly coats the inner surface of the mold. Whencool
ed , a hollow finished part is removed.
Compression and Transfer
Molding
• Compression molding consists of charging a plastics p
owder or preformed plug into a mold cavity, closing a
mating mold half and applying pressure to compress,
heat, and cause flow of the plastic to conform to the cavit
y shape. The process is primarily used for thermosets,
and consequently the mold is heated to
accelerate the chemical cross-linking.
• Transfer molding is and adaption of compression
molding in that the molding powder or preform is
charged to a separate preheating chamber and,
when appropriately fluidized, injected into a
closed mold. It is most used for thermosets, and is
somewhat faster than compression molding.
Foam Processes
• Foamed plastics materials have achieved a high deg
ree of importance in the plastics industry. Foams ca
n be made in arange from soft and flexible to hard a
nd rigid. There are three types of cellular plastics: b
lown (expanded matrix, such as a
natural sponge), syntactic (the encapsulation of holl
ow organic or inorganic microspheres in the matrix)
, and structural(dense outer skin surrounding a foa
med core). There are seven basic processes used to
generate plastics foams.
Casting and Encapsulation
• Casting is a low-
pressure process requiring nothing more than a co
ntainer in the shape of the desired part. For
thermoplastics, liquid monomer is poured into the
mold and, with heat, allowed to polymerize in pla
ce to a solid mass. For
vinyl plastisols, the liquid is fused with heat. Ther
mosets are poured into a heated mold wherein the
cross-linking reaction
completes the conversion to a solid.
• Encapsulation and potting are terms for casting pr
ocesses in which a unit or assembly is
encased or impregnated, respectively, with a liqui
d plastic which is subsequently hardened by fusio
n or chemical reaction.
These processes are predominant in the electrical
and electronic industries for the insulation and pro
tection of components.
Calendering
• In the calendering process, a plastic is masticated between two
rolls that squeeze it out into a film which then passes around
one or more additional rolls before being stripped off as a cont
inuous film. Fabric or paper may be fed through the latter rolls
, so that they become impregnated with the plastic.
Blown Film
• The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular
die, followed by "bubble-like" expansion.
• Typical Materials Used:
Mainly Polyethylenes (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE) but a wide
variety of other materials can be used as blends with these
resins or as single layers in a multi-layer film structure. these
include PP, PA and EVOH.
• Typical Products Produced:
Industry packaging (e.g. shrink film, stretch film, bag
film or container liners), Consumer packaging (e.g.
packaging film for frozen products, shrink film for
transport packaging, food wrap film, packaging bags,
or form, fill and seal packaging film), Laminating film
(e.g. laminating of aluminum or paper used for
packaging for example milk or coffee), Barrier film,
films for the packaging of medical products,
Agricultural film (e.g. greenhouse film, crop forcing
film, silage film, silage stretch film).
Extrusion Blow Molding
• The blow molding machine is based on a standard extruder
barrel and screw assembly to plasticise the polymer. The
molten polymer is led through a right angle and through a die
to emerge as a hollow (usually circular) pipe section called a
parison.
Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE),
Polyethylene - Terephthalate (PET) and Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
Bottles and containers, Automotive fuel tanks,
Venting ducts, Watering cans and Boat fenders etc.
Extrusion Profile & Sheet
• Along with Injection molding, Pro-file Extrusion

of plastics materials is a widely used method of
forming plastics materials. The Plastic raw
material is both melted and traversed along by the
action of heated rotary screws. It is a continuous
process and is thus able to manufacture long
lengths of a product. This is ideal for such
applications as pipes and gaskets. However very
often the continuous extrusion is cut into
application lengths
HDPE, PVC and PTFE filled PVC
Land Drainage Tubing, Animal Feeding Troughs, Cable
Harness, Door Seals, Light Diffusers, Electrical Conduit
and Cable Protector, Rainwater Pipes and Guttering, Facia
& Soffit Sections, Curtain Track, Fridge Seals, Edge Trim,
Caravan Window Surrounds, Garden Fence Posts &
Decking, Blood Drip Tubes & Catheter Tubes, Dip Tubes,
Gas Pipes, Water Pipes, Soil Pipes and Window, Door and
Conservatory Sections
Injection Blow Molding
• Injection blow molding is used for the Production

of hollow objects in large quantities. The main
applications are bottles, jars and other containers.
The Injection blow molding process produces
bottles of superior visual and dimensional quality
compared to extrusion blow molding. The process
is ideal for both narrow and wide-mouthed
containers and produces them fully finished with
no flash.
Polyethylene (Low Density) LDPE, (LLDPE),
Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene - Terephthalate
(PET), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polyethylene
(High Density) HDPE)
Plastic Bottles
Injection Molding
• Injection Moulding (or Molding to use the US spelling), along
with extrusion ranks as one of the prime processes for
producing plastics articles. It is a fast process and is used to
produce large numbers of identical items from high precision
engineering components to disposable consumer goods.
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS), Nylon (PA),
Polycarbonate (PC), Polypropylene (PP) and Polystyrene
(GPPS)
Power-tool housing, Telephone handsets, Television
Cabinets, Electrical Switches, DVDs, Automotive bumpers,
Automotive dash boards, Battery Casings, Syringes, Drug
Inhalation Units, Disposable razors, washing-up bowls,
Wheelie bins, Crates/Recycling boxes and Bottle
Lids/closures
Injection Molding (Gas Assisted)
• Developments over the past years in Gas Assisted Molding or
(Gas Assisted Molding to use the US spelling or Gas Injection
Molding being a common reference term) have resulted in
advances in the way in which injection molded components
are manufactured. Enhanced quality, reduced cycle times and
component weight reductions can be achieved by the process.
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene

Power-tool housing, Telephone
Injection Stretch Blow Molding
• Injection stretch blow molding is used for the

production of high quality containers.
Polyethylene - Terephthalate (PET)
Carbonated and soft drink bottles, Cooking oil
containers, Agrochemical containers Health and
oral hygiene products and Bathroom and toiletry
products
Major Equipment
Phenolic Resin Making Machine
Formaldehyde Making Machine
Urea Formaldehyde Toilet Seat
Making Machine
Phenol Formaldehyde Resin
Reactor Machine
PVC Pipe Machine
Plastic Resin Making Machine
Polyethylene Bag Making
Machine
Pollution and Abatement
• Plastic pollution is a global problem. The majority of
plastic winds up in landfills where it remains indefinitely.
No one exactly knows how long plastic takes to break
down, but it is believed to take hundreds or even
thousands of years .It is not just the accumulation of
plastics that harms the environment—it is also the fragments
and toxins released during photo-decomposition that pollute
our soil and water.
Some plastics are designed to degrade quickly, such as
Oxo-Degradable and while they may become less
noticeable, they are still present in the environment. For
example, in ocean environments, plastic fragments are
taken in by filter-feeding organisms. When tiny
plankton ingest plastic, animals up the food chain can
bio-accumulate larger quantities.
So while some plastic may be designed to degrade
quickly, it is still present in the
environment. Floating plastic waste that can survive
thousands of years in water can serve as a
transportation device for invasive species that disrupt
habitats.
• Plastic pollution involves the accumulation
of plastic products in the environment that adversely
affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans. The
prominence of plastic pollution is correlated with
plastics being inexpensive and durable, which lends
to high levels of plastics used by humans. Plastic
pollution can unfavorably affect lands, waterways
and oceans.
• Humans are also affected
by plastic pollution, such
as through the disruption
of the thyroid
hormone axis
or hormone levels.
Living organisms, particularly marine animals, can
also be affected through entanglement.
Abatement of Plastic
Pollution
20 ways to control plastic pollution
• 1. BUY products with little or no plastic

packaging, and products made from recycled
materials.
• 2. REDUCE the amount of plastic and other waste

you use by Bringing Your Own metal water bottle,
coffee mug, bag, etc.
• 3. RECYCLE as much as possible.
• 4. REFUSE to use plastic single-use items, such as

plastic grocery bags, plastic tableware and plastic
cups.
• 5. DISPOSE of your waste properly.

• 6. KEEP storm drains clean.
• 7. SPREAD the word! Tell friends how to

properly dispose of trash and recycling, and
encourage them to Bring Their Own.
• 8. GET INVOLVED in local politics and

encourage our leaders to pass bans on plastic
bags, Styrofoam containers, and more.
• 9. PARTICIPATE in a beach or river cleanup!
• 10. REPORT litter incidents
• 11.Stop using bottled water – In most cases it is

no safer than tap water and costs 3 times as much
gasoline and 1,ooo times as much as tap water
• 12. Bring your own reusable grocery bags with
you when you go to the store
• 13. Use a refillable dispenser for your hand soap

and dish washing liquid, one large bottle is better
than using a bunch of small ones
• 14. Use a reusable container instead of sandwich

bags
• 15. Bring your own to-go mug with you to the coffee
shop.
• 16. Say no to single serving packaging, buy in bulk

and share with friends instead.
• 17. Use silverware instead of plastic utensils, keep a

set at the office, bring a set on a picnic or to the
beach.
• 18. Download your music instead of buying CD’s
• 19. Seek out items that are not made of plastic
• 20. Avoid plastics that are not readily recyclable

Terms & Definition
• Resin - is a "solid or highly viscous substance" of plant or
synthetic origin that is typically convertible
into polymers. They are often mixtures of organic compound
principally terpenes. Many plants, particularly woody plants,
produce resin in response to injury. The resin acts as a bandage
protecting the plant from invading insects and pathogens
• Formaldehyde - is an important commercial aldehyde
used for the synthesis of resins employed in the
manufacture of building products, as well as in textile,
paper and leather industries and as a disinfectant and
preservative.
• Phenol - a colorless crystalline solid and aromatic
compound.
• Phenols - a class of chemical compounds that
include phenol
• Urea Formaldehyde - is a non-
transparent thermosetting resin or plastic. It is produced
from urea and formaldehyde. These resins are used in adhesives,
finishes, particle board, MDF, and molded objects.
• Polyethelene – is the most common plastic. Its primary use is in
packaging (plastic bag , plastic films, geomembranes, containers,
including bottles.
• Hexamethylenetetramine or methenamine is a heterocyclic
organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This white crystalline
compound is highly soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It
has a cage-like structure similar to adamantane.
• Phtalic anhydride is the organic compound with
the formula C6H4(CO)2O. It is the anhydride of phthalic
acid. Phthalic anhydride is a principal commercial form of
phthalic acid.
• Methyl Acrylate is an organic compound, more accurately
the methyl ester of acrylic acid. It is a colourless liquid with
a characteristic acrid odor. It is mainly produced to
make acrylate fiber, which is used to weave synthetic
carpets.
• Methacrylates are common monomers in polymer plastics,
forming the acrylate polymers.
• Cellulose is an organic compound with
the formula (C6H10O5)
n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of
several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4)
linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important
structural component of the primary cell
wall of green plants, many forms of algae and
the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it
to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant
organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content
of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%,
and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%.
• Cellobiose is a disaccharide with the formula
[HOCH2CHO(CHOH)3]2O. Cellobiose, a reducing
sugar, consists of two β-glucose molecules linked
by a β(1→4) bond. It can be hydrolyzed to
glucose enzymatically or with acid. Cellobiose
has eight free alcohol(OH) groups,
one acetal linkage and one hemiacetal linkage,
which give rise to strong inter- and
intramolecular hydrogen bonds. It can be obtained
by enzymatic or acidic hydrolysis of cellulose and
cellulose rich materials such as cotton, jute,
or paper
• Maltose is the second member of an important biochemical
series of glucose chains. Maltose is the disaccharide produced
when amylase breaks down starch. It is found
in germinating seeds as they break down their starch stores to
use for food, which is why it was named after malt. It is also
produced when glucose is caramelized.
Ceramic Industry
Introduction
• The traditional ceramic industries, sometimes referred
to as the clay products or silicate industries, have as
their finished materials a variety of products that are
essentially silicates. In recent years new products have
been developed as a result of the demand for materials
that withstand higher temperatures, resist greater
pressures, have superior mechanical properties,
possess special electrical characteristics, or can protect
against corrosive chemicals.
History of Ceramics
• The word Ceramic is derived from a Greek word
‘Keramos’ meaning ‘potter’ or ‘pottery’. Keramos
in turn was originated from a Sanskrit root –
meaning ‘to burn’. Hence, the word Keramos was
to infer ‘burned substance’ or ‘burned earth’.
• Ceramics have been accompanying the human race since
ancient times. Archaeologists have unearthed man-made
ceramics that date back to at least 25,000 BC. Primitive
Ceramics were made of basic earthen materials like clay
and were burnt in domes. Human inventiveness gradually
started with firing these articles at higher temperatures to
attain harder Ceramic articles. This desire of getting
harder substances steered the human races to invent
better firing techniques. The human zest and nature’s
mystery have come a long way from basic earthen wares
to modern world advanced ceramics.
• As Ceramics are made of earthen materials, they are the
most compatible products with the nature. Ceramics are
the only materials which are nature friendly and
therefore they are free from decays due to gradual
natural impacts like corrosion, erosion, abrasion,
thermal shocks, etc. Even though Ceramics are brittle;
they are the only materials which subsist to see the
races to come. Hence, we may call them a strong-
fragile part of human life.
• Pottery making is one of the most ancient of
human industries. Burnt clayware has been found
dating from about 15,000 B.C and was well
developed in Egypt 10 centuries later. Museums
contain, as a record of culture, clay products
created independently by various races.
• Demands for superior materials have produced a broader
spectrum of systems, greater emphasis has been placed on
the cross fertilization of silicate chemistry with
metallurgy and solid state physics, coupled with many
computer controlled processes and advancing automation,
which characterize modern methods of fabrication.
Recently, new processes have been under development for
brickmaking from inorganic wastes such as fly ash from
power plants, foundry sand, mine tailings, furnace slag,
and a large variety of other materials.
• Archeologists have uncovered human-made
ceramics that date back to at least 24,000 BC. These
ceramics were found in Czechoslovakia and were in
the form of animal and human figurines, slabs, and
balls. These ceramics were made of animal fat and
bone mixed with bone ash and a fine claylike
material. After forming, the ceramics were fired at
temperatures between 500-800°C in domed and
horseshoe shaped kilns partially dug into the ground
with loess walls.
• While it is not clear what these ceramics were
used for, it is not thought to have been a utilitarian
one. The first use of functional pottery vessels is
thought to be in 9,000 BC. These vessels were
most likely used to hold and store grain and other
foods.
• It is thought that ancient glass manufacture is closely
related to pottery making, which flourished in Upper Egypt
about 8,000 BC. While firing pottery, the presence of
calcium oxide (CaO) containing sand combined with soda
and the overheating of the pottery kiln may have resulted
in a colored glaze on the ceramic pot. Experts believe that
it was not until 1,500 BC that glass was produced
independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate
items.
• Since these ancient times, the technology and
applications of ceramics (including glass) has
steadily increased. We often take for granted the
major role that ceramics have played in the
progress of humankind. Below are just a few
examples of how important ceramics are to
society.
• Ceramics is one of the most ancient industries on
the planet. Once humans discovered that clay
could be dug up and formed into objects by first
mixing with water and then firing, the industry
was born. As early as 24,000 BC, animal and
human figurines were made from clay and other
materials, then fired in kilns partially dug into the
ground.
• Almost 10,000 years later, as settled communities
were established, tiles were manufactured in
Mesopotamia and India. The first use of
functional pottery vessels for storing water and
food is thought to be around 9000 or 10,000 BC.
Clay bricks were also made around the same time.
• Glass was believed to be discovered in Egypt
around 8000 BC, when overheating of kilns
produced a colored glaze on the pottery. Experts
estimate that it was not until 1500 BC that glass
was produced independently of ceramics and
fashioned into separate items.
• Fast forward to the Middle Ages, when the metal
industry was in its infancy. Furnaces at that time for
melting the metal were constructed of natural
materials. When synthetic materials with better
resistance to high temperatures (called refractories)
were developed in the 16th century, the industrial
revolution was born. These refractories created the
necessary conditions for melting metals and glass on
an industrial scale, as well as for the manufacture of
coke, cement, chemicals, and ceramics.
• Another major development occurred in the
second half of the 19th century, when ceramic
materials for electrical insulation were
developed. As other inventions came on the
scene-including automobiles, radios, televisions,
computers-ceramic and glass materials were
needed to help these become a reality, as shown
in the following timeline.
Advantages Over Metals
• Ceramics are usually lighter than metals, sometimes
weighing only about 40 % as much. This is
important in aircraft, missile and spacecraft
applications, where reduced weight conserves fuel.
In a gas turbine engine, a lightweight ceramic rotor
accelerates more rapidly than a heavier metallic
rotor because it has less inertia.
• They are highly resistant to oxidation and other

chemical glue, as well as to corrosion.
• Because of their high temperature resistance,
ceramics may obviate the need for cooling
equipment, especially in diesel engines.
• Some ceramics are exceptionally hard. The

hardest substances known, such as diamond,
boron carbide, cubic boron nitride and silicon
carbide are ceramics. They can be excellent
cutting agents.
• Because of their low coefficient of friction,
high compressive strength and wear
resistance, some ceramics can be used in
bearings and other mechanical parts without
requiring lubrication.
• Some modern ceramics can withstand

temperatures as high as 1600°C, whereas
even the best super-alloys can seldom be
used above about 1100 °C.
• Modern ceramics are potentially less
expensive than super-alloys. In the years
ahead, these ceramics are expected to be
much cheaper than super-alloys.
• Unlike super-alloys ceramics do not require

the increasingly expensive strategic metals
(viz, cobalt, chromium, nickel and tungsten)
for high temperature use.
Uses and Application of Ceramics
Uses of Ceramics
• Ceramic products are hard, porous, and brittle. As
a result, they are used to make pottery, bricks,
tiles, cements, and glass. Ceramics are also used
at many places in gas turbine engines. Bio-
ceramics are used as dental implants and synthetic
bones. Given below are some other important uses
of ceramics.
Tiles
• Our roofs, bathrooms and kitchens are covered in ceramic
tiles. Ceramic can be glazed with different colours and printed
with any design, so tiles can be tailored to different people’s
tastes. They are tough and easy to wipe clean once glazed
which is perfect for use in the kitchen or bathroom!
Cookware
• Majority of crockery and pots are made from ceramic. From
unglazed to glazed, mortar and pestles to the mug that holds
your tea, ceramic is a staple material in the kitchen. Ceramic
knives have also become common, they are one of the hardest
knives you can buy yet are extremely lightweight!
Brick
• Our homes are made from brick and are held together by
cement, both of which are types of ceramic. Without ceramic,
what would we use instead to create the four walls of our
homes?
Toilets
• Sanitary ware such as toilets, sinks and bath tubs are made
from ceramic. Ceramic can be glazed and fired so that it
becomes non-porous, perfect for sanitary ware which gets
used every day and is, of course, in contact with lots of water!
Space
• NASA’s Space Shuttle had thousands of heat-
resistant tiles protecting its exterior from
overheating due to friction generated by
Earth’s atmosphere. Future reusable space
planes are expected to use a new, slimline
ceramic material that will enable it to be both
more aerodynamic and withstand
temperatures up to 2400°C. Composite
ceramics are also used to create the nose
cones of spacecraft!
Cars
• Ceramic can help to decrease pollution and capture

toxic materials. Today’s catalytic converters are made
with ceramic and help convert harmful fumes into
non-toxic gases, therefore having a huge benefit on
the environment. Ceramic components can be found
in almost every aspect of a vehicle and are a major
contributor to advances in hybrid and eco-friendly
vehicles.
Artificial Bones and Teeth
• Toughened ceramic is used in hip replacements and is

designed to be porous so that it can stimulate natural
bone growth around the artificial joint. You will also
find ceramic fillings for your teeth where the ceramic
is chemically bonded to your tooth making it
extremely strong.
Electronic Devices
• Televisions contain ceramic insulators,
computers have silicon chips and the electric
motors in your vacuum cleaner or blender are
also made using ceramic!
• Who would have thought that we would come
across so much ceramic in modern life! Some
people say that ceramic is an outdated material
and it is often described as ‘old fashioned’. In
reality, ceramic is the key to many of our new
technologies and is used day to day by us all.
Application of Ceramics
• A ceramic material may be defined as any
inorganic crystalline material,compounded
of a metal and a non-metal .• Ceramics can
be classified as Crystalline ceramics &
Non-crystallineceramics .• Crystalline
ceramic materials are not amenable to a
great range ofprocessing.• Non-crystalline
ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed
from melts. Theglass is shaped when it is
fully molten .
Glass Ceramic
• Glass-ceramic materials share many properties
with both glasses and ceramics.• Glass-ceramics
have the fabrication advantage of glass as well
as special properties of ceramics.• Glass-
ceramics usually have between 30% [m/m] to
90% [m/m]crystallinity• Glass-ceramics have
many interesting properties like zero porosity,
high strength, toughness• low or even negative
thermal expansion, high temperature stability .
Advanced ceramics VS Traditional
ceramics
large numbers of materials are ceramics.
• The applications for these materials are diverse,
from bricks and tiles toelectronic and magnetic
components.
• The functions of ceramic products are dependent
on their chemicalcomposition and microstructure ,
which determines their properties.
• traditional clay-based ceramics have been used
forover 25,000 years,advanced ceramics have
generally been developed within the last 100years
Traditional Ceramics
• Traditional Ceramics are usually based on clay and silica.•
traditional ceramics mainly used with low technology
applications. Advanced ceramics are also referred to as
“special ” “technical” or “engineering” ceramics. advanced
ceramics have superior mechanical properties corrosion
resistance electrical & optical properties. magnetic properties.
Advanced Ceramics in the Automotive
Industry
• In engines heat-resistant ceramic parts like valve

components backings in the crankshaft housing
and components for water and fuel pumps to
increased efficiency, less wear and lower noise
emission.
Advanced Ceramics in Equipment and
Mechanical Engineering
• high wear resistance, temperature resistance and a

high level of corrosion resistance make ceramics
safe than other materials in equipment &
mechanical use, cutting tools and mechanical
pumps.
Advanced Ceramics in Energy and
Environment
• Ceramic materials enable safe, low-wear process control .•
reduce emissions and ensure efficient use of resources in many
areas ofenergy supply and environmental technology.
Modern Industry
• Zirconium dioxide ceramics are used in the manufacture of

knives. The blade of the ceramic knife will stay sharp for
much longer than that of a steel knife• Ceramics such as
alumina, boron carbide and silicon carbide have been used in
bulletproof vests• Silicon nitride parts are used in ceramic ball
bearings. Their higher hardness means that they are much less
susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes.•
High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing
watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its
light weight, scratch- resistance, durability and smooth touch.
Raw Material of Ceramics
• The three main raw materials used in making classic, or
“triaxial” ceramic products are clay, feldspar and sand. Clays
are more or less impure hydrated aluminum silicates that have
resulted from the weathering of igneous rocks in which
feldspar was noteworthy original mineral.
Clay
• Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material

that combines one or more clay minerals with
traces of metal oxides and organic matter.
Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed
of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable
amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.
• Clays are plastic due to that water content and
become hard, brittle and non–plastic upon drying
or firing. Depending on the soil's content in which
it is found, clay can appear in various colors from
white to dull grey or brown to deep orange-red.
Feldspar
• Feldspars (KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) are a group
of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that make up about 41%
of the Earth's continental crust by weight.
• Feldspars crystallize from magma as veins in
both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and are
also present in many types of metamorphic
rock. Rock formed almost entirely of
calcic plagioclase feldspar (see below) is known
as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in many
types of sedimentary rocks.
Sand
• Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of
finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size,
being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also
refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil
containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass.[
• The composition of sand varies, depending on the local
rock sources and conditions, but the most common
constituent of sand in inland continental settings and
non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide,
or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. The second
most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for
example aragonite, which has mostly been created,
over the past half billion years, by various forms of
life, like coral and shellfish.
PICTORIAL FLOWCHART
• Draw of the process
The manufacturing process starts with the
selection of the raw materials that make up the
ceramic tile, essentially clays, feldspars, sand,
carbonates and kaolins. As the raw materials are
normally used exactly as they are extracted from
the mines or quarries, it is essential to begin by
ensuring that they are homogenised, in order to
guarantee that their characteristics are consistent.
They are therefore ground in order to disperse
and reduce the particles. This grinding process
may be wet or dry. Wet grinding is the most
common method, whereby the clays are
dissolved in water in a ball mill. The resulting
suspension is known as ‘slip’. Spray-drying is
used to reduce its water content for the later
compacting and drying processes.
The slip is pumped, sprayed and dried by a stream
of hot gases inside the spray-dryer. These gases
come from a conventional air-gas burner, or
alternatively the exhaust gases from a cogeneration
turbine may be used, thereby cutting the cost of the
drying process. A spray-dried powder is produced,
made up of spherical granules that are uniform in
shape and hollow inside, allowing for a fine loose
powder which makes the mould-filling and pressing
processes easier.
Dry pressing is the most common moulding method.
Hydraulic presses are used, guaranteeing maximum
compaction, high productivity rates and optimum
consistency in the press cycle time. The tiles
produced have a moisture content of between 5 and
7 per cent, which means they must be dried to
reduce it to between 0.2 and 0.5 per cent in order to
ensure successful firing, and, where appropriate,
glazing. An excessively high water content would
cause the tiles to crack or break.
In the case of unglazed products, after drying, the
next phase is firing. If the tiles are to be glazed, then
they must first be covered with one or more layers
of glaze. This gives the tiles a series of technical and
aesthetic features including colour, gloss and surface
texture. Glazed tiles are also impermeable and easy
to clean, and are chemically and mechanically
resistant. Ceramic tiles are line-glazed and the most
common techniques are waterfall glazing, spraying,
dry glazing or decorating.
Firing is one of the most important stages in the
manufacturing of ceramic tiles. During this process, a
series of reactions take place that change the
microstructure of the tile, creating the required final
properties such as mechanical strength, size stability,
resistance to chemical agents and fire and easy
cleaning. During the firing stage, the key variables in
the thermal cycle are the firing time and temperature
and the kiln atmosphere, which depend on the
composition of the raw materials and the type of
product required.
Today, fast firing is the most common method used in
the production of ceramic tiles. Single layer roller
kilns are now used, which have drastically reduced
the firing cycle times to less than 40 minutes (thanks
to the improved heat-transfer coefficients, as well as
their uniform nature and flexibility). In these single
layer kilns, the tiles travel over the rollers and the heat
needed to fire them is supplied by natural gas-air
burners located in the kiln walls. During this process,
the heat is basically transmitted by convection and
radiation.
In order to guarantee maximum quality at each
stage of the process, the next stage is to sort the
tiles and detect any faulty pieces. Although sorting
was originally done by hand, today this process is
carried out automatically using recognition
software based on a series of pre-determined
parameters. This enables tiles that are irregularly
shaped or with faulty colouring to be removed.
Packing is the final stage in the ceramic tile
manufacturing process.
e.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A Box Feeder is designed for storage, dosage
and preliminary breaking up of materials used in
clay brick production. Their basic functionality
is to dose and transport raw material for further
production stages.
Plate feeder is used to convey diferent kinds of
particulate, lumpy materials in horizontal or
inclined direction in building material,
metallurgical, coal and chemical industries, and
it's suitable for feeding lumpy lime stone,
gypsum or clay from the bottom of feed bin to
the inlet of crusher continuously and evenly.
Double roller crusher is mainly used for the
crushing of medium or lower-hardness mines
and rocks with medium or lower rigidity in the
cement, metallurgy, chemical industry, electric
power, coal and other industry. The crushing
materials include limestone, slag, coke and coal.
Double Shaft Mixer efficiently mix dry to very
wet materials, or blend liquids and sludges with
dry solids. Materials can range from wet and
sticky clays, sludges, or filter cakes to silty, sandy
soils and other abrasives. These machines can be
used as pugmills for mixing liquids or sludges
with dry solids, especially when a greater tub
volume is required for longer retention times.
Most often, they are used for the intensive
blending of two dissimilar wet or dry materials.
Brick extruder
For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10-
15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20-25% water
(soft extrusion). This is forced through a die to
create a long cable of material of the proper
width and depth. This is then cut into bricks of
the desired length by a wall of wires. Most
structural bricks are made by this method, as it
produces hard, dense
bricks, and suitable dies can produce holes or
other perforations. The introduction of holes
reduces the volume of clay needed, and hence
the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to
handle, and have thermal properties different
from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by
drying for 20 to 40 hours at 50 to 150 °C before
being fired. The heat for drying is often waste
heat from the kiln.
The Hoffmann kiln is a series of batch process kilns. Hoffmann
kilns are the most common kiln used in production of bricks and
some other ceramic products. Patented by German Friedrich
Hoffmann for brickmaking in 1858, it was later used for lime-
burning, and was known as the Hoffmann continuous kiln.
A Hoffmann kiln consists of a main fire passage surrounded on

each side by several small rooms. Each room contains a pallet of
bricks. In the main fire passage there is a fire wagon, that holds a
fire that burns continuously. Each room is fired for a specific
time, until the bricks are vitrified properly, and thereafter the fire
wagon is rolled to the next room to be fired.
Each room is connected to the next room by a passageway carrying hot gases from the
fire. In this way, the hottest gases are directed into the room that is currently being
fired. Then the gases pass into the adjacent room that is scheduled to be fired next.
There the gases preheat the brick. As the gases pass through the kiln circuit, they
gradually cool as they transfer heat to the brick as it is preheated and dried. This is
essentially a counter-current heat exchanger, which makes for a very efficient use of
heat and fuel. This efficiency is a principal advantage of the Hoffmann kiln, and is one
of the reasons for its original development and continued use throughout history. In
addition to the inner opening to the fire passage, each room also has an outside door,
through which recently-fired brick is removed, and replaced with wet brick to be dried
and then fired in the next firing cycle.
In a classic Hoffmann kiln, the fire may burn continuously for years, even decades.
Any fuel may be used in a Hoffmann kilns, including gasoline, natural gas, heavy
petroleum and wood fuel. The dimensions of a typical Hoffmann kiln are completely
variable, but in average about 4 m (height) x 15 m (width) x 150 m (length).
MAJOR EQUIPMENT
A Box Feeder is designed for storage, dosage
and preliminary breaking up of materials used in
clay brick production. Their basic functionality
is to dose and transport raw material for further
production stages.
Plate feeder is used to convey diferent kinds of
particulate, lumpy materials in horizontal or
inclined direction in building material,
metallurgical, coal and chemical industries, and
it's suitable for feeding lumpy lime stone,
gypsum or clay from the bottom of feed bin to
the inlet of crusher continuously and evenly.
Double roller crusher is mainly used for the
crushing of medium or lower-hardness mines
and rocks with medium or lower rigidity in the
cement, metallurgy, chemical industry, electric
power, coal and other industry. The crushing
materials include limestone, slag, coke and coal.
Double Shaft Mixer efficiently mix dry to very
wet materials, or blend liquids and sludges with
dry solids. Materials can range from wet and
sticky clays, sludges, or filter cakes to silty, sandy
soils and other abrasives. These machines can be
used as pugmills for mixing liquids or sludges
with dry solids, especially when a greater tub
volume is required for longer retention times.
Most often, they are used for the intensive
blending of two dissimilar wet or dry materials.
Brick extruder
For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10-
15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20-25% water
(soft extrusion). This is forced through a die to
create a long cable of material of the proper
width and depth. This is then cut into bricks of
the desired length by a wall of wires. Most
structural bricks are made by this method, as it
produces hard, dense
bricks, and suitable dies can produce holes or
other perforations. The introduction of holes
reduces the volume of clay needed, and hence
the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to
handle, and have thermal properties different
from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by
drying for 20 to 40 hours at 50 to 150 °C before
being fired. The heat for drying is often waste
heat from the kiln.
The Hoffmann kiln is a series of batch process kilns. Hoffmann
kilns are the most common kiln used in production of bricks and
some other ceramic products. Patented by German Friedrich
Hoffmann for brickmaking in 1858, it was later used for lime-
burning, and was known as the Hoffmann continuous kiln.
A Hoffmann kiln consists of a main fire passage surrounded on

each side by several small rooms. Each room contains a pallet of
bricks. In the main fire passage there is a fire wagon, that holds a
fire that burns continuously. Each room is fired for a specific
time, until the bricks are vitrified properly, and thereafter the fire
wagon is rolled to the next room to be fired.
Each room is connected to the next room by a passageway carrying hot gases from the
fire. In this way, the hottest gases are directed into the room that is currently being
fired. Then the gases pass into the adjacent room that is scheduled to be fired next.
There the gases preheat the brick. As the gases pass through the kiln circuit, they
gradually cool as they transfer heat to the brick as it is preheated and dried. This is
essentially a counter-current heat exchanger, which makes for a very efficient use of
heat and fuel. This efficiency is a principal advantage of the Hoffmann kiln, and is one
of the reasons for its original development and continued use throughout history. In
addition to the inner opening to the fire passage, each room also has an outside door,
through which recently-fired brick is removed, and replaced with wet brick to be dried
and then fired in the next firing cycle.
In a classic Hoffmann kiln, the fire may burn continuously for years, even decades.
Any fuel may be used in a Hoffmann kilns, including gasoline, natural gas, heavy
petroleum and wood fuel. The dimensions of a typical Hoffmann kiln are completely
variable, but in average about 4 m (height) x 15 m (width) x 150 m (length).
Magnetic Separator Hydraulic press
Trimming Lathe Ball Mill
Agitator Extruder
Hopper Bin Crusher
Vacuum Pugmill Blunger
Dryer/Oven
POLLUTION AND
ABATEMENT
The ceramic industry basically is a branch of high-
temperature chemistry dealing with silicate materials as
a major constituent, combined literally with hundreds of
raw materials for the manufacture of countless end
products.
The industry is ancient in origin but in the last four
decades has become one which is scientifically oriented
as shown by the tremendous progress made in the many
divisions of the industry, including refractories, glass,
porcelain enamel, cement, whitewares, and others of
varying importance.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss air pollution
abatement in a segment of the industry related to
porcelain enamel. As most of the industries employ
essentially the same raw materials, the techniques for
handling and the problems encountered in producing
and eliminating air pollution are similar. Therefore
techniques for any one industry in the ceramic area will
apply to all in varying degrees depending upon type of
pollutants generated in manufacturing specific products.
Manufacturing Methods
Before air pollution problems can fully be understood, a
brief review of manufacturing methods from raw
materials to finished product is in order to understand
the various types of pollutants related to the ceramic
industries. First, silicates and other refractory materials
of both metallic and nonmetallic types are the basic raw
materials. Several hundreds of other materials are
combined with the basic materials to form end
products.A rather simple example is the manufacture of
glass in which relatively few materials such as sand,
soda, lime, and borax are melted at high temperature to
produce a specific composition.
Contrast this with more complicated types of glass such
as porcelain enamel in which many different types of
raw materials such as sodium silico-fluoride, zirconium
oxide, titanium oxide, fluorspar, and other materials are
used in the category of refractories, intermediate
materials, and fluxes. These materials which are usually
fine powders must be mixed and reacted completely or
partially at high temperatures. The resulting glass is
produced through the use of periodic or continuous
smelters of various types and capacities. During the
mixing and smelting of these materials to produce a
final end product, substantial amounts of heat must be
applied. During the chemical reactions, fumes are
evolved of varying compositions depending upon the
type of glass or frit being manufactured. Many of these
glasses are complex borosilicates containing varying
amounts of fluorine bearing compounds which, during
the smelting operation, react at high temperatures to
produce fumes and gaseous mixtures of carbonates,
nitrates, and fluorides. Accompanying these gaseous
compounds are extremely fine particles of raw material
dust and partially reacted materials. Products of
combustion, if fuel is gas or oil, act as a carrier for all
reaction products. The turbulence of these products of
combustion serves to increase the emanation of dusts of
the various raw materials.
The materials emanating from ceramic plants to the
outside can be classified into two categories. One, gases
which may or may not be toxic depending upon the
formulation used and two, particulate matter. This
particulate matter may be of minute particle size and
travel relatively long distances. Normally, to obtain
rapid reaction, raw materials are of a fine particle size.
The various ingredients which sometime number a
dozen or more are intimately mixed prior to the
smelting operation. This in itself is a source of
pollutants. The chemical industry has partially
overcome emanation of dust by using finely divided
materials in pelletized form.
The porcelain enamel industry in the United States
manufactures about 68,000 metric tons of frit per year
for wet-process technology. This is ground with water
and clay to produce products such as refrigerators,
stoves, washing machines, and architectural panels. A
similar amount of dry process enamels are used in the
manufacture of bathtubs, sinks, and kindred end
products. This multiplied world-wide amounts to
a substantial figure. When it is considered that
most of this material must be smelted for varying
lengths of time at high temperatures, air
pollution can be a serious factor both internally
and externally. We must examine carefully
methods of abatement.
Methods of Abatement
Work was started in the early thirties to combat this
problem. The original attack was to mix gases
emanating from smelters with finely powdered calcium
carbonate and collect this material in large canvas bags.
These bags were located in a large building removed
from the manufacturing area. The theory of control was
based on the lime reacting with the acid bearing gases.
It would eliminate objectionable nuisance and also serve
as a means of recovering raw material for use in
the manufacturing process. This, however, proved not to
be practical because in periods of downtime,
condensation of water vapor on the bags in the acid
gases destroyed the bag material and rendered the
equipment useless. To replace these large bags was
extremely costly both in material and labor. Eventually
this method was abandoned. Next tried was a chemical
method of spraying the effluent with alkaline solutions
such as soda ash and passing the evolved gases through
bubblers of various types to remove the pollutants
escaping from the smelters. This was successful on a
small scale but on a large scale was extremely costly in
maintenance due to corrosion. Also, it was not efficient
because of the tremendous volume of gases which has
to be handled. Therefore in the middle thirties, tall
(76M) chimneys, 4 meters in diameter at the top, were
employed to eliminate these gases. The very fine
particles which escape at the top were dispersed by
trade winds and contamination would be reduced well
below trace limits as was proved by chemical analysis at
the ground level.
However, in certain parts of the country tall stacks are
unacceptable due to the hazards of earthquakes or
because climatic conditions are such that
particulatematter of any kind cannot be permitted to
escape into the atmosphere. In these cases, a wet
scrubber has been successfully used in reducing the
pollutants to well below legal limits. This method has
been used effectively in our company for the past 15
years in reducing emissions to the atmosphere.
The only drawback in this type of treatment is the
maintenance cost of the equipment itself, as corrosion is
a major problem. However, this is being eliminated by
the use of plastics in those areas where the temperature
of the gases is reduced to a sufficiently low level. It
must be remembered that the smelting reactions take
place in the range of 1000-1700°C. Therefore the
effluent gases are at elevated temperatures and must be
cooled to be treated. Despite the corrosive character of
the gases, particulate matter, and the elevated
temperatures involved, the effluents from the scrubber
have been reduced to a minimum content of
contaminant.
Abatement by Engineering Design

Electric smelting methods instead of gas or oil are also
used in areas of the country where power is reasonable
in cost. This method of glass manufacture has reduced
pollutants and increased yields of desired end products.
Another case in point was a clear glass tank. Analysis of
the problem by the engineering department showed that
the raw material mix was being dropped several meters
into the tank which was gas fired. A tremendous amount
of products of combustion for an extremely large tank
acted as a sweeper for raw materials especially those of
a volatile nature and caused a great deal of particulate
matter to be lost into the atmosphere. Proper
engineering changes in the next tank campaign reduced
to a minimum the distance of fall of the raw material.
This simple engineering change reduced by 80% the
loss of valuable effluent.
This same plant installed a recuperator into the system
which reduced the gas consumption by half and also cut
the volume of effluent gases to a minimum. At the same
time particulate matter was further reduced thereby
effecting a saving of valuable materials.
Abatement by Process Change
The porcelain enamel industry is cognizant of the fact
that costly raw materials are usually the ones that are
lost. Another approach is being used for eliminating air
pollution.
Various raw materials and other methods of melting
have been thoroughly investigated which tend to reduce
particulate matter emanating from the smelters. An
example is the use of calcium silicate instead of calcium
carbonate and soda ash. This eliminates the carbon
dioxide from carbonate and therefore reduces the
amount of particulate matter to a marked degree. After
the glass or porcelain enamel is made and in the
customer's plant, an end product such as refrigerator,
stove, or bathtub is produced.
This process consists of grinding the glass in water,
suspending it with clay and various other electrolytes to
produce what is known in the trade as a porcelain enamel
or glaze slip. This slip (Note: in England it is "slop") is
then applied to steel or ceramic materials, water is
expelled by drying in a properly designed oven and then
the object is fired. Temperatures vary depending on base
material processed. Aluminum enamels fire below 530°C,
cast iron 650°C, sheet steel 800°C, and ceramic materials
1200°C. These materials must be fired at a specific time
and temperature for optimum results.
During the firing cycle, deleterious gases are liberated
and techniques of firing make it mandatory that these
gases be rapidly removed from the firing chamber. They
are acid with varying amounts of water vapor. The
combination of these produces various defects on the
finished ware. These deleterious gases are usually
removed by vents in the furnaces coupled with short
stacks. This will eliminate gases and particulate matter
from the plant proper. If this is not done, these gases
although low in concentration can cause extreme toxic
reaction on the workers in the plant. In most cases,
however, proper dilution by high-velocity fans will
dissipate gases from the plant to the outside atmosphere.
This is sufficient to cut the actual percentage below the
concentration which will cause any type of
neighborhood disturbance. However, prior to firing, this
material must be sprayed onto the part which is being
porcelain-enameled or glazed. The overspray is
removed by a fan and expelled from the plant by high-
velocity fans.
This process will emit particulate matter and if the
particle size is a few microns, the material can be
dispersed over the neighborhood causing a pollution
nuisance. This becomes a serious problem when large
plants doing commercial enameling exhaust large
quantities of glass materials per day from a chimney or
exhaust vent. In addition to the fact that this is a
nuisance and will decrease property values, it also is a
material loss which is in most cases treated as a
business expense.
However, in well managed plants determinations have
been made to evaluate the quantity of particulate matter
being expelled and to eliminate the losses. As this
problem becomes a cost factor, proper engineering steps
are taken to wash these dust particles prior to expulsion
into the outside air. Proper engineering will eliminate
practically 95% of this contaminant.
The material is washed, allowed to settle, filtered, and
can be used over again in the process, thus preventing a
valuable raw material from being physically lost.
Designs such as this have been experimentally proved
and are available.

Rubber, Plastics &amp; Ceramics 2

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Rubber, Plastics &amp; Ceramics 2

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Rubbers, Plastics, and

• is a highly elastic solid substance, light cream

Charles Goodyear developed vulcanization in

The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 (from Russian

B.F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon

Solid-fuel rockets during World War II used

After the war, Caltech researchers began to

The parallel chains of stretched rubber are

Synthetic rubber can be mostly used with

Expanded rubber for mattresses and sponges

Another important application of rubber are

The neopropene is a polymer which is used as

Nitrile rubber is obtained by copolymerization

Polyisoprene synthesis is the artificial rubber

Butyl rubber derives from isobutane and

Buna rubber is composed of several monomers

 Tyres: Man-made rubber is used to

 Fuel missiles: Rubber based fuels were used

 Scientific and medical field: Man-made

 Protective clothing: Synthetic rubber is also

 Apart from the above mentioned uses, man-

Varieties of Natural Rubber

Styrene butadiene block

The operating temperature range for NR is

Variants of cold feed extruders include: 1) Plain

During the sheeting process, the rubber calender

Designed and manufactured a variety of roll

Ruggedly constructed throughout, High

Despite the numerous benefits that are rendered

WASTE DISPOSAL MEASURES

Currently, several effective methods have been

Environmental situation in rubber production

• CHARLES MARIE DE LA CONDAMINE

• Most modern plastics are based on organic

• The versatility of plastic materials comes from the

• There is a huge percentage of plastic in your

• Trains, planes, and automobiles - even ships,

• The Construction sector is the second highest user

• Piping and Conduit are the largest users of polymers in

• Cladding and profiles for windows, doors, coving,

• Insulation is generally produced from Polystyrene

• Seals and Gaskets are made from Elastomers

• The stylish appearance of modern VCRs, CD

• Essential to the modern office are smart and hard

• Electricity is essential to our standard of living, a valuable and

• Plastics are poor conductors of heat. To reduce the

• Whatever the designer dreams up, plastics can

• Plastics are hygienic, hardwearing and easily

• Plastics consume just 4% of oil production. They

• When products have reached the end of their

• The cost-effective and safe transportation of people

• More plastics, by volume, than steel are now used in

• The aerodynamic requirements of aerospace

• Materials used in railway locomotives, carriages

Colorless and odorless, low Housewares, medical equipment

Excellent resistance to abrasive Pipe and tubing, films and in

Low coefficient of friction, low Electrical insulation, mechanical

Crystal clarity, outstanding Decorative and structural panels,

Low cost, ease of processing; Insulation, pipe, foams, cooling

Outstanding toughness, high impact Textile and paper finishes, thickening

Good heat resistance, solvent and Molding compounds, adhesive

Extreme versatility in processing, Construction, auto repair putty,

Excellent electrical and thermal Electrical insulation, electronic

Tough, strong and easily moldable, Unlubric

Rubber, Plastics & Ceramics 2

Rubber, Plastics & Ceramics 2