Research

{ Introduction
Definitions of Research
 The main goal of research is the gathering and
interpreting of information to answer questions
(Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).
 Research is a systematic attempt to provide
answers to questions (Tuckman, 1999).
 Research may be defined as the systematic and
objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in
prediction and possible control of events (Best and
Kahn, 1998).
 Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman,
and Hart, 1996).
Research Classifications
System #1:
 Basic research
 Applied research

System #2:
 Quantitative research
 Qualitative research

System #3:
 Experimental research
 Non-experimental research
Basic vs. Applied Research

 Applied
Basic
 Pure, fundamental
research
 Discovery of new
knowledge;
theoretical in nature
 Takes many years for
the results of basic
research to find
some practical utility
 Central purpose to
solve an immediate
problem
 Improved products or
processes
 Infers beyond the
group or situation
studied
 Interpretation of
results relies upon
Basic research
Basic steps of a research project
Define the PROBLEM
Find a TOPICWhat, When

Formulate questions/objetivesWhat,

Why
Define population Who, When

Select design & measurement  How

Gather evidenceHow

Interpret evidence/AnalysisWhy

Tell about what you did and found out

Search for Truth

Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of

truth:
1. Custom and tradition
2. Authority
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Scientific inquiry
Deductive Reasoning
 A.k.a., Logic.
 In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general
assumption to specific application
 GENERAL  SPECIFIC

 Aristotle and other early philosophers

 Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism.

 All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore,
Socrates is moral.
 Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body
mass. Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become big
and bulky.
 Not sufficient as a source of new truth
Inductive Reasoning
Conclusions about events (general) are
based on information generated through
many individual and direct
observations (specific).
 SPECIFIC  GENERAL
 Researchers observe an individual or group

of individuals from a larger population 

based on these observations,
generalizations are made back to the larger
population.
Inductive Reasoning
Two kinds of induction:
 Perfect
 Conclusions based on observations made
from ALL members of a group or
population
 Imperfect
 Conclusions based on observations made
from a random sample of members of a
population
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

 Deductive:
 Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
 Inductive:
 Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
The Scientific Method
Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
 Identifying the problem
 Formulating a hypothesis

 Developing the research plan

 Collecting and analyzing the data

 Interpreting results and forming

conclusions

Example…
Identifying the Problem
First, and arguably the most important,


step
 Several sources
 Theoretical basis
 Professional practice

 Personal experience

 Shear curiosity

 Starts as a broad question that must be

narrowed
 Problem statement; experimental approach

to the problem; etc.

Identifying the Problem

 Three categories when selecting a research

problem
 Those who know precisely what they want to do
and have a well conceived problem
 Those who have many interest areas and are
having difficulty deciding exactly what they
want to study
 Those who do not have any idea about a
worthwhile research problem
Philosophy of Graduate Education

MENTORSHIP!
 Work with a professor/researcher that
has established a research agenda
Formulating a Hypothesis
 Hypothesis:
 A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of
the research
 A concrete, specific statement about the

relationships between phenomena

 Based on deductive reasoning

 2 types of hypotheses:

 Null hypothesis (HO)

 All is equal; no differences exist

 Alternative (research) hypothesis (H )

A
 Usually specific and opposite to the null
Developing the Research Plan
 A strategy must be developed for gathering and
analyzing the information that is required to
test the hypotheses or answer the research
question
 Four parts:
 Selection of a relevant research methodology
 Identification of subjects or participants

 Description of the data-gathering procedures

 Specification of the data analysis techniques

 Pilot studies, IRB,…all must be determined in

advance!
Collecting and Analyzing the Data

Following all the pre-determined

protocols
 Time in the lab collecting data
 Analyzing the composite data

 Controlling the environment

Easiest part of the process…

 However, sometime the most time-
consuming part of the process…
Interpreting Results and Forming Conclusions

DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN

ITSELF!
Does the evidence support or refute the

original hypotheses?
 Accept or reject the hypotheses
 Conclusions should be drawn:

 Develop new hypotheses to explain the results

 Inferences are typically made beyond the

specific study
New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,

and Hart, 1996)
 Sample Research
Topic: The challenges of Orphanage program to
Ethiopian Muslims (Is that a problem?)
Objective: 1) to assess the general programs of orphanage in
Ethiopia (including Gudifecha)
2) Identify the key challenges the program poses
on EM
3) find out alternative coping/aversion strategies
Methodology: - Sample population [NGOs(10), Gos3(3), Int.
donner(6), orphans(600)]
- Questionnaire, interview, focused group discussion,
observation
Outputs: ….
Outcomes: ….
Contents of a Research Proposal

 TOPIC: must be revealing and short

• INTRODUCTION: Discuss the background, objectives and
questions you want to answer, statement of the
problem, Methodology (DETAIL),

 REVIEW OF RELATED WORKS: In depth ….

 RESEARCH WORK TIME LINE: Clear weekly plan

COST BREAK DOWN: Reasonable and …..

…………………………………//……………………………………
Contents of Business Proposal
Has got two separate parts
a) Technical Proposal
b) Financial Proposal
Technical Proposal
May have 6 sections
Technical Proposal-1: Consultants Organization &
Experience
Technical Proposal-2: Comments on the Proposal
Technical Proposal-3: Methods and Technical Approaches
Technical Proposal-4: Staffing and man-month schedule
Technical Proposal-5: Profile of Staffs/experts assigned
Technical Proposal-6: Work-Time Schedule