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Type of capacitor
The capacitor can be divided to two types that is:

1. Polarised
= Large values, 1µF+
= Example of the polarised capacitor is electrolytic capacitors and tantalum bead
capacitors.

2.Unpolarised
= small values, up to 1µF
  
= Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano)
and p (pico):
= µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
= n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
= p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
     





= The capacitor is really needed to be used in high voltage
engineering. The most common type of capacitor to be used
in this high voltage industry is ceramic capacitor. A ceramic
capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical
ceramic capacitor is the "disc capacitor". This device pre-
dates the transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-tube
equipment.
r   
= disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads
= multilayer rectangular block, surface mount
= bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is soldered in
place, used for UHF applications
= tube shape, not popular now
       
=  ixing: Ceramic powder is mixed with binder and solvents to create the slurry, this
makes it easy to process the material.

= Tape Casting: The slurry is poured onto conveyor belt inside a drying oven, resulting in
the sheet determines the voltage rating of the capacitor.

= Screen Printing and Stacking: The electrode ink is made from a metal powder that
ismixed with solvents and ceramic material to make the electrode ink. The electrodes
arenow printed onto the ceramic sheets using a screen printing process. This is similar to
a tshirtprinting process. After that the sheets are stacked to create a multilayer structure.

= Lamination: Pressure is applied to the stack to fuse all the separate layers, this created a
monolithic structure. This is called a bar.

= Cutting: The bar is cut into all the separate capacitors. The parts are now in what is called
a ¶green· state. The smaller the size, the more parts there are in a bar.
= Firing: The parts are fired in kilns with slow moving conveyor belts. The temperature
profile is very important to the characteristics of the capacitors.

= Termination: The termination provides the first layer of electrical and mechanical

= connection to the capacitor.  etal powder is mixed with solvents and glass frit to create
the termination ink. Each terminal of the capacitor is then dipped in the ink and the
parts are fired in kilns.

= Plating: Using an electroplating process, the termination is plated with a layer of nickel
and then a layer of tin. The nickel is a barrier layer between the termination and the tin
plating. The tin is used to prevent the nickel from oxidizing.

= Testing: The parts are tested and sorted to their correct capacitance tolerances.

= At this point the capacitor manufacturing is complete. The parts could be packaged on
tape and reel after this process or shipped as bulk.

       
= Capacitor with high performance and reliability is needed in the military weapons and
device. This is because the device being used with the military will work at the maximum
performance. If normal capacitor is being used, the device will be easily broken. The
multi layer ceramic capacitor is a high voltage capacitor that is affordable. Because of the
affordability and reliability, it is the most common types of capacitors used in the
military devices.
= As an example, capacitor is used in power converter. Power converter usually used in
electrical part of military transport such as fighter jets and navy frigates. A powerful
converter is needed to ensure less power loss during the energy conversion.
=
= Then, capacitor is also used in energy storage. In military, backup for power supply is
really needed because shortage of energy can happened anytime during the war.
=
= Ceramic Chip Capacitors are designed for High Voltage performance and reliability with
conservative designs.
=
Capacitor for power supply and energy
storage
 ½ r      
  

A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to

one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly
applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy
to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert
another form of energy to electrical energy

=  echanical to electrical
= Chemical to electrical
 Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load,
as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from
an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may
obtain energy from:

= Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this

include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC
voltage.
= Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.
= Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.
= Solar power
 A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone
device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. In the
latter case, for example, low voltage DC power supplies are
commonly integrated with their loads in devices such as
computers and household electronics.Constraints that commonly
affect power supplies include:

= The amount of voltage and current they can supply.

= How long they can supply energy without needing some kind of
refuelling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ
portable energy sources).
= How stable their output voltage or current is under varying load
conditions.
= Whether they provide continuous or pulsed energy

  
= ‰attery power supply
= Unregulated power supply
= Linear regulated power supply
= AC/DC supply
= Switched-mode power supply
= Programmable power supply
= Uninterruptible power supply
= High-voltage power supply
= Voltage multipliers
 X    

= Power supplies often include some type of overload

protection that protects the power supply from load faults
(e.g., short circuits) that might otherwise cause damage by
overheating components or, in the worst case, electrical fire.
Fuses and circuit breakers are two commonly used
mechanisms for overload protection
  

A fuse is a piece of wire, often in a casing that improves its

electrical characteristics. If too much current flows, the wire
becomes hot and melts. This effectively disconnects the power
supply from its load, and the equipment stops working until the
problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is
replaced.
= There are various types of fuses used in power supplies.
= fast blow fuses cut the power as quick as they can
= slow blow fuses tolerate more short term overload
= wire link fuses are just an open piece of wire, and have poorer
overload characteristics than glass and ceramic fuses
= Some power supplies use a very thin wire link soldered in place as
a fuse.
     

= Xne benefit of using a circuit breaker as opposed to a fuse is

that it can simply be reset instead of having to replace the
blown fuse. A circuit breaker contains an element that heats,
bends and triggers a spring which shuts the circuit down.
Xnce the element cools, and the problem is identified the
breaker can be reset and the power restored.

 

= Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer

rather than a fuse. The advantage is it allows greater current
to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply
continuously. Some such cutouts are self resetting, some are
single use only.
    

= Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off

power if overloaded. The two types of current limiting used
are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is
common on lab bench PSUs, the latter is common on
supplies of less than 3 watts output.
= A foldback current limiter reduces the output current to
much less than the maximum non-fault current.
 ½ r      

   
The list below details some of the supplies that have been designed
and reached production, many of which are currently still in
production. The identity of the end user is classified for some
products.

= Full suite of 28V DC DC converters for FLIR (Forward Looking

Infra Red), used on thermal imaging equipment for Air force,
Navy and Army.
= 28VDC to 100VAC converter for cooling engine electronics in the
same FLIR.
= Various multiple output very low profile DC DC converters for
video recoding surveillance in unmanned drones.
=  ultiple output supplies for IFF, Identify Friend Xr Foe.
= Various supplies for Direct Infra Red Counter  easure
electronics, (DIRC ), also named Nemesis.
= High reliability intelligent battery charger for land based
vehicles.
= High voltage 3 phase 400Hz AC AC converter, used as line
conditioner for cooling FLIR equipment.
= High efficiency, very high reliability power supplies for
location on the sea bed underneath oil rigs.
= Xther designs cannot be listed or mentioned due to the
classified nature of those products.
    

= A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch

designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit.
= Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting
continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.
= Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a
circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation.
= Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.
 X  

= detect a fault condition.

= contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt
the circuit.
= contacts must carry the load current without excessive
heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced
when interrupting the circuit.
= when a current is interrupted, an arc is generated.
= once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must
again be closed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.

   
=  iniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to
extinguish the arc.
=  agnetic blowout coils deflect the arc into the arc chute.
= Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the
arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a
small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus
blowing out the arc.
= Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very
quickly.
 r    
= Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that are
expected to carry, and the maximum short-circuit current that
they can safely interrupt.
= Under short-circuit conditions, a current many times greater than
normal can exist.
= This condition can create conductive ionized gasses and molten or
vaporized metal which can cause further continuation of the arc,
or creation of additional short circuits, potentially resulting in the
explosion of the circuit breaker and the equipment that it is
installed in.
= The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is
determined by testing.
 r    

= International standard IEC 60898-1 and European standard EN
60898-1 define the rated current In of a circuit breaker for low
voltage distribution applications as the current that the breaker is
designed to carry continuously (at an ambient air temperature of
30 °C).
= The commonly-available preferred values for the rated current are
6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A
and 100 A.
= The circuit breaker is labelled with the rated current in amperes,
but without the unit symbol "A".
= Instead, the ampere figure is preceded by a letter "B", "C" or "D"
that indicates the instantaneous tripping current, that is the
minimum value of current that causes the circuit-breaker to trip
without intentional time delay.
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= Electrical power transmission networks are protected and
controlled by high-voltage breakers.
= The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission
work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a
recent definition by the International Electro technical
Commission (IEC).
= High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with
current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers.
= In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex,
protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload
or ground/earth fault.
         
= All military circuit breakers carried by  IL-CX  comply
with all mil-spec requirements.
= Remote control circuit breakers (RCCB)by functioning as a
combination of a relay and circuit breaker, this device
controls high power circuits and a control signal to the
cockpit.
=  il-spec circuit breakers are available with a wide range of
versatile and fully functional features carry such a selection to
provide with maximum efficiency and dependable
performance in some of the most demanding military,
aerospace, and commercial applications.
     
 
    
    
 
= Automatic protective devices (circuit breakers) are provided
within aircraft systems to minimize distress to the electrical
system and hazard to the aircraft in the event of wiring faults or
serious malfunction of a system or connected equipment.
= Alerting devices provide the pilot with a visual and/or aural alarm
to direct the pilot·s attention to a situation that may require an
immediate intervention by the pilot.
= Deactivating the alerting or warning device by pulling circuit
breakers compromises or may compromise the safety of flight.
= Exceptions would be acceptable for an obvious malfunction
resulting in continuous erroneous warnings.
= In these cases, a defect entry in the aircraft journey log book must
be made.
          

  
= A circuit breaker is a device designed to open and close an
electric circuit and to open the circuit automatically at a
predetermined overload current, without damage to itself.
= Correct circuit breaker selection should result in a protective
device with the lowest standard rating that will not trip
inadvertently.
= The nameplate current rating of circuit breakers is a nominal
rating for identification and the actual useable rating for a
particular application may be considerably different.
= The instantaneous trip current is usually in the order of ten
times the current rating of the circuit breaker.

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= transistors with higher specification than the normal
transistor.
= usually located in the area of power transformer such as the
switch mode power transformer and fly back transformer.
= In television and monitor that uses the fly back transformer
to generate high voltage, a high voltage transistor is required
to perform the job.
= It's location mainly beside the fly back transformer and attach
to a heat sink in order to transfer heat faster. Xtherwise it
may blow in a very short time due to the hard work of this
transistor in switching.
½
 
  
 

=  ilitary avionics and radar design has seen profound changes

over the past few decades. New multimode systems now
allow radar to simultaneously track air and sea targets while
continuously scanning an operational area.
= New signal processing techniques such as pulse compression
increase resolution while maintaining range.
= Ground-based radar (GBR) systems operating in the 1.2 GHz
to 1.4 GHz band offer better range and visibility than they
ever have before.
= Xver the last several decades, the constant evolution of the
RF power transistor, and its impact on PA design, has played
a crucial role in this process.
= By continually improving RF transistor performance, military
avionics and radar system designers have been able to deliver
PAs capable of providing higher levels of power at higher
efficiency and with higher
linearity.
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= In the automotive industry, in consumer electronics as well as in

industrial applications integrated circuits are required which can
switch high voltages (and high currents) and perform complex
logic and analogue operations at the same time.
= The lateral High Voltage C XS transistors which are
implemented in such a technology can switch voltages in the range
of 10 to some 100 Volts.
= due to the high electrical fields encountered in these transistors,
physical effects such as non-equilibrium energy distributions of
carriers (hot carrier generation), impact ionization in silicon,
micro structural damage at the silicon / silicon oxide interface and
self- heating take place.
= These effects lead to a permanent shift of important electrical
parameters of the transistor which can reduce its lifetime.
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= High voltage power bipolar transistors are part of industry-

leading portfolio for energy-efficient lighting.
= Designed to support electronic ballast and transformer
applications, they are available in versions from 700 to 1200
V and deliver very high efficiency with exceptional reliability.
= series of high voltage power bipolar transistors use planar
technology that delivers industry-leading cost-performance
ratios.
= The high-voltage (up to 1200 V) capability is suitable for
push-pull technologies. Fast switching times and low VCEsat
ratings combine to reduce switching and conduction losses.