PETRO-BOOSTER

Path to field Exposure

MUD
ENGINEERING
Mud Circulation

Drilling fluids are generally pumped

from the surface tanks down through
a hollow drill – pipe to the bit and to
the bottom of the hole, it returned to
the surface through the annular
space,
i.e. between drill pipe and wall of
the drilled hole. This phenomenon is
known as mud circulation.
 Introduction
■ All fluids used in the wellbore, during drilling
operations are termed as drilling fluids.
■ Each drillingfluid consists of following four
constituents:
❑ Continuous phase
❑ Discontinuous phase
❑ Inert solids
❑ Chemicals

Drilling mud may be defined as a suspension of solids in a

liquid phase; the liquid may be water or oil.
Properties of the Drilling Fluid
■ Density/Specific Gravity
■ Viscosity
■ pH (Alkalinity)
■ Salinity
■ Filtration – filter cake & water separation
■ Lost circulation (fluid loss control)
■ Compressibility
■ Chemical composition
- interaction between the mud and the drilled formations must
have a minimal effect on the mechanical properties of the formation
Functions of Drilling Fluid
❑ Cooling and lubricating the bit, drill pipe and drill collar.
❑ Controlling the formation pressure (Pm-Pf ~ 100-200 psi)
❑ Carry cutting from beneath the bit, transport them up the annulus and permit their separation at the
surface. (Cleaning of the bottom of the hole)
❑ Acting as medium for settling out cuttings in the surface pit
❑ Assist in the collection and interpretation of information available from
drill cuttings, cores and electrical logs
❑ Form a thin, low – permeable filter cake which seals pores and other openings in formations
penetrated by the bit
❑ Preventing caving – in of the formation
❑ Avoiding damage to productivity of producing formations
❑ Partial aid in supporting the weight of drill string and casing
❑ Preventing corrosion and fatigue of drill pipe
❑ Suspension of cuttings and weight materials on stopping the circulation
View of formation of Mud cake at the
wall of wellbore
Cutting carrying capacity of mud
Depends on
■ Annular velocity, Vr
■ Plastic viscosity, PV
■ Yield point of mud, YP
■ Slip velocity of generated cuttings, Vs
Lift (resultant) velocity of cuttings = Annular velocity – slip velocity

Vr = volume flow rate (Q)/annular area (A)

Dp = equivalent particle
diameter (inch)
ρp = density of particle (ppg)
ρm = density of mud (ppg)
μe = effective mud viscosity (cP)
Based on power law model, transitional flow
Certain limitations/restrictions are
placed on the Drilling Fluids

❑ Not injurious to drillingpersonnel, nor be damaging or

offensive to the environment (non toxic)

❑ Not corrode nor cause excessive wear of drilling equipment

❑ Not require unusual or expensive methods of completion

of the drilled hole
 Development

• As early as 1887 water was used as circulating fluid.

• Later on it was observed that drilled clays after getting mixed with circulating
water possesses better carrying capacity, so the use of plastic clay material with
water recommended.

• It was only in 1916 that a gradual recognition of drilling mud as an aid to safer,
faster and economical drilling was established.
Classification/Types of Drilling Fluids
The choice for a particular type of mud is usually
made on the basis of the
- type of formation to be drilled,
- expected formation temperature,
- pressure and oil gas zones, etc.,

Types of drilling mud:

❑ Water based muds - constituents of mud are
added in crude oil
❑ Oil based muds - constituents of mud are added in
(crude) oil
❑ Emulsion muds (O/W)
❑ Invert Emulsion Mud (W/O)
Classification/Types of Drilling Fluids
• Air is the best drilling fluid
- Easily available Disadvantages
- Free of cost - When circulation stops, cuttings fall
- Need not to be cleaned before circulation down
- Doesn’t contaminate cuttings and - Doesn’t have viscosity
formation - Doesn’t support the wall
- Provides best cooling - Doesn’t give counter pressure to
- Used for blast hole drilling, water well formation fluid
drilling, mineral drilling. - Doesn’t provide lubrication to bit

• Water Air: 1000-2000 m/min

• Air + Water Water: 80m/min
Mud: 30-40 m/min
• Foam/Mist
- Make the fluid viscous
- Looses its viscosity and foaming properties and becomes liquid all of sudden
Water based Mud
Consists of 4 components;
■ Liquid water – continuous phase and used to provide initial
viscosity
■ Reactive fractions – to provide further viscosity and yield point -
(low gravity solids) Solid
compone
- Clays – Bentonite and Attapulgite nts of
■ Inert fractions – to provide the required mud weight – mud
(high gravity solids)
– Sand, barite, limestone, chert
■ Chemical additives – to control mud properties
 Clay
▪ Natural, earthy, fine
grained materials that
develop plasticity when
wet.
2 types of clay are currently
in use;
■ Bentonite clay – only used
with fresh water. (since
high viscosity and high
yield point do not develop
in salt water)
■ Attapulgite clay – can be
used for both fresh and
saline water
Nature of Clay
They posses an atomic structure in which the atoms form layers.
3 types of atomic layers;
A) Tetrahedral layer
– sheets of tetrahedra - a central silicon atom surrounded by 4 oxygen atoms
- the tetrahedra are linked to form a sheet by sharing 3 of their oxygen
atoms by adjacent tetrahedra.

B) Octahedral layer

C) Exchangeable layers

- layers of atoms or molecules bound

loosely into structure → which can be
exchanged with other atoms or
molecules
 The nature of these layers and the way these are stacked together on top of one another
define the type of clay mineral.

Tetrahedral silica

Octahedral Alumina/Mg

Tetrahedral silica

(K,Na,Ca, Mg atoms or H2O or organic molecules)

Interchangable layer

Tetrahedral silica

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) – measure of how easily exchange can take place
■ The layers A and B are held together by exchangeable layers.
■ The bond is very weak.
■ Layers split easily along exchangeable layers.
■ The separated layers carries electric charge on their faces and edges.
■ The edge carries +ve charge & the faces carries –ve charge.
■ So due to repulsion or bombarding between each other, the layers
remains in suspension and separated.
■ When exchange layer (Montmorillonite);
“Ca” → Ca based clay
“Na” → Na based clay
Hydration of clay🡺 high CEC clay → high adsorption of water into exchangeable layer →
expansion of the clay structure → high viscosity and yield point of clay. (dry powder → plastic slurry)

Clay yield → the number of barrels of 15 cp mud which can be obtained from 1 ton (2000 lb) of dry
clay.
Functions of Additives / Chemicals
❑ Weighing materials
❑ Viscosifiers
❑ Thinners, dispersants, deflocculants
❑ Lost circulation control materials
❑ Filtration control materials
❑ Surface active agents/Emulsifiers
❑ Foaming agents
❑ Alkalinity and pH control additives
❑ Bactericides
❑ Calcium removers
❑ Corrosion inhibitors
❑ Defoamers
❑ Flocculants
❑ Lubricants
❑ Shale stabilizing materials
Weighing Material (Inert Fraction)
■ Sand
■ Barite
– Barium Sulphate (BaSO4)
- specific gravity - 4.2 gm/cc: used to prepare mud of over 10 ppg
- Low cost and high purity
■ Lead sulphides – Galena
- specific gravity – 6.5-7: mud weight upto 35 ppg
■ Calcium Carbonate (2.7-2.8 gm/cc) – 12 ppg max. mud density
- ability to react and dissolve in HCL → any cake formed in the producing zone can be
easily removed.

■ Iron Minerals – Iron oxides - Hematite (4.9 – 5.3), magnetite,

Illmenite (4.5-5.1)
- more erosive
- contains toxic material
■ High pressure formations like Shale requires SG
of mud to be 2.4 gm/cc

▪ At high mud weight, rheological properties becomes

difficult to control due to increased solid content.

S.G. of
Bentonite – 2.6
Barrite - 4.2
Effect of solids
in drilling fluid
■ Hydrostatic Pressure HP – Hydrostatic pressure (Kg/cm2)
ρ𝑚∗𝑇𝑉𝐷 ρ𝑚 - mud weight (gm/cc)
HP = TVD – true vertical depth of well
10 bore (m)

or, HP (psi) = 0.052 * ρ𝑚 (ppg) * TVD(ft)

■ Density of mud,
ρ𝑠 = specific gravity of solid X = fraction of solid in
m3 ρ𝑙 = specific gravity of liquid ρ𝑚 = specific
gravity of mud
Vm = volume of mud (Vs +Vl)

ρ𝑠*Vs + ρ𝑙*Vl = ρ𝑚*(vm)

■ For 1 m3 of mud,
ρ𝑠*x + ρ𝑙*(1-x) = ρ𝑚*1
Viscosity modifiers
Used to control viscosity, yield point, gel and fluid loss properties of mud – Mud
thickners and Mud thinners

Mud Thickners (Viscosifiers)

Increase in viscosity primarily due to flocculation of clay plates, resulting from replacement of Na+
cations by Ca+ cations
■ Bentonite (Sodium/calcium Aluminosilicates)
■ Attapulgite
■ Spiolite
■ Hectorite Polymers are used for filtration
■ Polymers control
- Xanthum Gum • Viscosity modification
• Flocculation
- Guargum
• Shale stabilization
- Polyacrylate/Polyacrylamide
- Hydroxy ethyl cellulose (HEC)
- Carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC)
- Poly anionic cellulose (PAC)
- Starch
Viscosity modifiers
Mud Thinners (Deflocculants/Disperssants)
Decrease in viscosity primarily due to breaking in the attachment of clay plates,
and then attaching itself to clay plates → preventing the maintenance of
attractive forces between the sheets
■ Phosphates
– Sodium tetraphosphate o Suitable for any pH value
– Sodium acid pyrophosphate o Temperature limitation of
175 °F (79 °C)
■ Chrome lignosulphates
• – Decomposes at 300 °F (177 °C) They increase fluid loss
■ Lignites – Lignin – Water loss control agent control & reduce filter cake
thickness
■ Surfactants – reduce water loss, and used as
emulsifiers ■ Qudracho
• – Modified lignosulphates ■ Reacted caustic Tenyon
■ Reacted Caustic Lignite
■ Mangrove Bark
 Lost Circulation Material
Granular, flaky and fibrous type of mud.
■ Blend of cane and wood fibres
■ Blend of long fibres
■ Cellofane flakes
■ Short fibres
■ Leather products
■ Granide Mica
■ Shredding
■ Ground walnut shell
■ Cement
■ Shredded rubber tyres
■ Fibrous Material wool
Additives controlling filtration properties & free
water
■ Polymers (PAC, CMC)

PH additives – to improve pH value (water based fluid)

■ NaOH, KOH
■ Soda Ash (Na2CO3)
■ Sodium Bicarbonate
■ Potash
■ Lime
■ magnesia

Lubricating Materials
▪ oil (diesel, mineral, animal, or vegetable oils)
▪ Surfactants, polymers
▪ Graphite
▪ Asphalt
▪ gilsonite, and glass beads
Shale Stabilizing Material

■ Shale – highly hydratable – swells in contact with water

■ Minimized by the prevention of water contacting the
open shale section.
■ high molecular weight polymers
■ Hydrocarbons
■ potassium and calcium salts (e.g. KCl)
■ glycols

A specific ion of additive such as potassium actually enters the

exposed shale section and neutralizes the charge on it.
Oil Based Mud|| Invert Emulsion Mud
Oil – continuous phase
Solids – discontinuous phase Water & solids – discontinuous phase + surfactant
■ Useful in drilling; (since clay do not swell in oil)
– Production zones, or other water sensitive zones
– Shales

■ IEFs are cost effective for

– Shale stability
– Temperature stability
– Lubricity
– Corrosion Resistance
– Stuck pipe prevention
– Contamination
– Production prevention
Fundamental Properties of Mud

■ Weight (or Density)

■ Rheological Properties

■ Filtrate and filter cake

■ pH value
 Mud Weight – Mud Balance
■ Depends on quantity of solids in liquid phase

For water
■ Sp. Gr. = 1
■ Lb/gallon (ppg) = 8.33
■ Lb/ft3 (pcf) = 64.5
■ Lb/100 ft3 = 434.5

Steps
■ Callibrate Mud Balance first with water. (corrections can be done by taking out shots).
■ Fill the mud in 200 cc cup (excess mud comes out through hole).
■ Move the rider till the bubbles come in middle of glass window.
■ Take readings of density, specific gravity and pressure gradient.
Mud Balance
Viscosity – Marsh Funnel
▪ Body - thermoplastic material.
▪ Opening – Gun Metal tube
■ Marsh funnel viscosity (sec) – The Time taken by one quartz (946
cc) of mud to flow through marsh funnel at temperature of 70 °F
■ Calibration of Marsh funnel is done with water at 70 °F.
– Water – 26.5 ± 0.5 sec

Preparation of standard mud sample;

■ Take 220 gm bentonite → mix in 350 cc of distilled water → stir at 1800 rpm for 15 min
(Hamilton stirrer) → leave the sample for 24 hr.
■ Before test → again stir it for 5 min.
Viscosity – Fann Viscosity Gel (VG)
viscometer
■ Three available types
i. 6 speed – for educational purpose/field
ii. 8 speed
iii. 12 speed – for developing new muds
■ Motor is operated at 3 gear & 2 speeds.
■ Instead of linear motion, rotary motion is
used to measure viscosity.
Viscosity – Fann Viscosity Gel (VG)
viscometer

Low Speed Torque (Dial High Speed Torque (Dial

(rpm) Reading) (rpm) Reading)
RPM α Force
1st Gear 3 ф3 6 ф6

2nd Gear 100 ф 200 ф

100 200

3rd Gear 300 ф 600 ф

300 600
Drilling fluid – Bingham plastic rheological model – μp, 𝛕 γ, Gel
Strength)
Yield point – measure of forces that cause mud to gel once it is motionless, and it directly effects the
carrying capacity of mud.

Gel Strength- measure of the ability of mud to develop and retain a gel structure.

❑ Rheological properties of mud;

A. Plastic viscosity (PV or μp), cp = ф600 – ф300
B. Yield point (𝛕γ), lb/100 ft2 = ф300 – μp
C. Apparent viscosity (AV or μa), cp = ф600/2
D. Gel strength
• Mud is stirred at high speed → allowed to rest for 10 sec (for initial gel strength)
or 10 min (for 10 min gel strength)
• Gel strength – take torque reading at 3 rpm (lb/100 ft2)
Apparent viscosity calculation at each rotor speed

■ Apparent viscosity (at each rpm)

θN : Dial reading in degrees N :
Revolution speed (rpm)

The dimension of bob and motor are chosen so that the dial reading is equal to
the apparent Newtonian viscosity in centipoise at 300 rpm rotor speed.
API Filter Press - LPLT
A.Ordinary filter press (LPLT) – 100 Psi pressure
B. HPHT filter press – simulates actual reservoir- (with half filtration area), but can be used
in P upto 1200 psi and T up to 500 ◦F
2 Properties are tested;
■ Filtrate loss – Amount of water mud will loose in formation

■Mud cake thickness – that will be formed during drilling There are 2 caps –
– Top cap
– Bottom cap – acts as formation

Mesh Size – 60
Filter paper dia– 3.5 inch
LPLT filter Press

filtering area is 7.1 in2

 Process to measure filtration loss
i. Fill the cup with mud sample
ii. Open cart, apply pressure, test starts.
iii. Under pressure some liquid will fill cylinder.
iv. Test is done for 30 min, and amount of water collected in the
graduated cylinder is noted as filtration loss. 𝑇2 V2 – volume at 30 min
(Amount of water should not exceed 11-13 ml) 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 V1 – volume at 15 min
𝑇1
v. Reading should be taken every 4 min.
vi. Plot graph between amount of filtrate loss Vs. time.
(Initially the rate of filtrate loss is more and gradually decreases) –
(initially, rock is clean, so flow is fast, then pores fill up → less loss )

**Some people also test it for 15 min or 7.5 min & convert the result to 30 min
 Process to measure Filter Cake
Thickness
i. Remove the pressure source, and open the screw.
ii. Remove bottom cap and take out the filter paper (on hard surface).
iii. Wash it under tap and remove loose constituents.
iv. Take a scale, with graduation starting from bottom, and insert it in
the cake to measure the thickness.
(Thickness should be 1 mm at max)
v. Check if the film made is permeable or not.

**Mud cake thickness is reported as 1/32 of an inch

 Determination of sand content
(which gets added due to borehole cuttings)

■ Sands/solids → abrasive → wear out all the equipment they

get in contact with, drilling rate also gets reduced.
■ In a fresh mud → zero sand content
■ Sands/solids need to be removed before recirculation.
■ Since sands become more fine → 100% removal not possible
Maximum allowed sand content → 2.5%

**If sand is not checked, it will continue to recycle and harm. A point will come where san can
no longer be removed, and new mud needs to be made.
Determination of sand content
Glass Tube Funnel (Plastic)

Sieve (Plastic) Wire mesh - 200

Water bottle

Sand content kit

Process to Determine SAND CONTENT

■ Fill mud till mud level, and then water till “water to here” level.
■ Shake it vigorously ( to remove thixotropic properties) → so that
separation of sand from mud takes place.
■ Put funnel on the bottom of the sieve.
■ Gentle hammering is done so that water goes down.
■ Wash it with water again & repeat so that components like CMC also
passes down.
■ Reverse the sieve, also put a funnel & put the solid (washed with water)
back in glass tube.
■ Measure the % sand in mud. (Scale is calibrated)
pH value test

■ Should be between→ 8.5 – 9.5

■ If mud is very acidic/ basic → bentonite will not remain in
dilution but will precipitate.

Tested using;
■ Litmus Paper
■ Electronic pH calculator
pH value test

■ Should be between→ 8.5 – 9.5

■ If mud is very acidic/ basic → bentonite will not remain in
dilution but will precipitate.

Tested using;
■ Litmus Paper
■ Electronic pH calculator
Equivalent Annular Circulation Density
Dynamic Pressure = Hydrostatic pressure (HP) + Annular Pressure Loss (ΔP)

Dynamic pressure → total pressure exerted on hole bottom Dynamic pressure =

equivalent circulation density (ECD) x g x hole depth

Δ𝑃
ECD = ρ m + 0.052∗𝐻

Question
For a well bore, Annular pressure losses are 200 psi, true vertical depth
(TVD) is 10,000 ft and mud column weigh is 9.6 ppg.
Calculate the equivalent circulation density.
Pumps
Pumps
Circulation of Drilling fluid Reciprocating Pump (Duplex double
acting or triplex single acting)

To pump mud into degaser/ desander/ desilter Centrifugal Pump

For increasing pressure of oil for hydraulic Rotary/Piston Pump

system (so that it can rotate motor)

Water supply Pump Centrifugal Pump

Fuel pump in engine to circulate coolants Rotary pump/centrifugal pump

Cement pump Reciprocal Pump

Advantages of the reciprocating PDP when compared to centrifugal pumps are:
■ ability to pump fluids with high abrasive solids contents and with large solid
particles,
■ easy to operate and maintain,
■ sturdy and reliable,
■ ability to operate in a wide range of pressure (P) and flow rate (Q).
Calculation of Mud weight increase

𝑊𝑡𝐵 = wt. of barite required to add mud

𝑉𝑜(ρ𝑓 − ρ𝑜)
weight (lb/gal)
𝑊𝑡𝐵 =
(ρ𝐵 − ρ𝑓) 𝑉𝑜 = initial volume of mud (gal) ρ 𝑜 =
initial mud density (lb/gal) ρ𝑓 = final mud
density (lb/gal)
ρ𝐵 = (Barite density (lb/gal)

Practice Question –

■ Determine the quantity/sacks of barite required to change the density of mud

from 1.5 kgJl (12.53 ppg) to 2 kgJl (16.7 ppg). Calculate the increase in pit
volume due to
the addition of such a quantity of barite for an initial
mud volume of 10m3 (63 bbl).
Calculation of Mud weight decrease

𝑊𝑡𝑤 = wt. of water required to decrease

𝑉𝑜(ρ𝑜 − ρ𝑓)
mud weight (lb/gal)
𝑊𝑡𝑤 =
(ρ 𝑓 − ρ𝑤) 𝑉𝑜 = initial volume of mud (gal) ρ𝑜 =
initial mud density (lb/gal) ρ𝑓 = final
mud density (lb/gal)
ρ𝑤 = (water density (lb/gal)
Practice Question –

■ (a) How much fresh water must be added to 1000 bbl of 12 lb/gal mud to
reduce its density to 10 lb/gal? (b) What will be the resulting volume?
THANK
YOU!
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