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‡ The earth today is not as it was billions of
years ago.

‡ However, life did exist and genetic

information was passed down over the
centuries.

‡ Genetic information needs to be in a form

that can be copied and transferred to the
next generation.
‡ Nucleic acids are the only molecules that are
able to function this way.

‡ Therefore, ALL living things have nucleic acid to

store and transfer genetic information.

‡ One of the earliest organisms are the

prokaryotes.

‡ Through evolution and diversity we now have

eukaryotes.

‡ However, the shape of the DNA in these

organisms differ.
ã OKA
OTIC CELL
EUKA
OTIC CELLS
  
 |
 
 |

‡ ã
 


 include ‡ Animal and plant cells are

the bacteria and archaea. eukaryotic cells.

‡ ãrokaryotic cells have ‡  


 have a

 , small 
 that controls the
accessory rings of DNA. workings of the h

‡ No nucleus ‡ The nucleus is the single

greatest step in evolution
‡ Naked DNA of higher animals


  
‡ According to the 
 

,
eukaryotes arose from a symbiotic relationship
between various prokaryotes.

‡ Heterotrophic bacteria became mitochondria.

‡ Cyanobacteria became chloroplasts.

‡ Host cell was a large prokaryote that was

evolving into a eukaryote.

  
‡ Today¶s eukaryotic organelles evolved by
symbiosis.

‡ This symbiosis occured when one species

of prokaryote was engulfed by a bigger
species prokaryote.

‡ This µbigger¶ prokaryote was a precursor to

eukaryotes.

‡ The smaller prokaryote were not digested

in the bigger prokaryote.
‡ Therefore, they survived and became part of the
cell.

‡ Their survival gave an advantage to the host

cell.

‡ E.g.: mitochondria ± source of energy

chloroplast ± photosynthesis

‡ Mitochondria originated from an aerobic bacteria

and chloroplast from a photosynthetic bacteria.
‡ Evidence for the endosymbiotic hypothesis
is the following:

± Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to

bacteria in both size and structure.

± Both organelles are bounded by a double

membrane ± the outer membrane may
represent the engulfing vesicle, and the inner
membrane from the prokaryote.
± Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain a limited
amount of genetic material and divide by splitting.
The DNA is a circular loop like that of prokaryotes.

± Most proteins of mitochondria and chloroplasts are

now produced by the host cell, but these organelles
do have their own ribosomes and do produce some
proteins. Their ribosomes resemble those of
prokaryotes.

± The NA base sequence of the ribosomes in

chloroplasts and mitochondria suggests a
prokaryotic origin.
 ! 
" 
#


‡ At least 1.7 million species of living organisms
have been discovered, and the list grows longer
every year (especially of insects in the tropical
rain forest). How are they to be classified?

‡ Ideally, classification should be based on

$%

‡ Homology is, &'  & &

('$ $$ &.
‡ The more recently two species have
shared a common ancestor, the more
similar they are.

‡ Similarities can now also be studied at the

level of proteins and DNA
 $ $%)*$+
‡ The figure shows the bones in the forelimbs of
three mammals: human, whale, and bat
‡ Although used for such different functions as
throwing, swimming, and flying, there is the
same basic structure.
‡ In each case, the bone shown in color is the
'&.
‡ Body parts are considered similar if they
have:
‡ the same basic structure
‡ the same relationship to other body
parts, and, as it turns out,
‡ develop in a similar manner in the
embryo.

‡ Various changes are adaptations.

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#


 
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‡ Because all cells use the same DNA
system, they have a common ancestry.

‡ Mutation is a spontaneous or induced

change in the genetic material and it is
part of the evolution process.

‡ Due to mutations, there is a great diversity

from the original DNA.
‡ If two species have evolved from a
common ancestor and their separation
was recent, then only a few new mutation
in each species would have taken place in
their nucleotide sequence.



 ,









 -
‡ On the other hand,
if the two species
have been
separated for a
much longer time,
they will probably
have more
difference in their
nucleotide
sequence.
‡ An organism¶s DNA and its proteins are
records of its heredity.

‡ Biologist compare the nucleotide

sequence of particular genes of different
species to discover how related they are to
each other.

‡ The more similar the nucleotide sequence,

the more closely related they are (close
evolutionary distance).
‡ The greater the evolutionary distance
between species, the more proteins (and
 ) are different.

‡ Differences in protein sequences and 

can be used to estimate time when two
species shared a common ancestor.
COMãA E THE BASE SEQUENCES OF THESE
3 SãECIES. WHICH TWO A E MO E CLOSEL

ELATED TO EACH OTHE ? WH
?

. 

#

 



 
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  /
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| |/ /"/|/|/ / / /|/|/ / /"/ /|/
  "
"/ /"/|/ / / / /|/|/ / /"/ /
  /|
‡ Answer:
±The DNA sequence of the ed
panda and the racoon is the
closest match.

±Therefore, the racoon and the red

panda are more closely related to
each other among the three.
‡ ãroteins are made up of amino acid sequences.

‡ One type of protein used in evolutionary

comparison is Cytochrome C.

‡ $+& of Human  $ to

 $ in other animals :

M100 amino acids different in tuna fish

M12 amino acids different in a horse
M8 amino acids different in a kangaroo
M1 amino acid different in a monkey
MIdentical to chimpanzee
‡ Haemoglobins are sometimes used
instead of cytochrome C in comparing
amino acid sequences.

‡ Haemoglobins have beta chains.

‡ The number of amino acids in the beta

chain is compared among species.
 Gorilla 1
‡ This table shows the
Gibbon 2
difference in the
hesus monkey 8
number of amino acid
Dog 15 residues, in
Horse, cow 25 comparison with
Mouse 27 humans.
Gray kangaroo 38

Chicken 45 ‡ The human beta

Frog 67 chain contains 146
Lamprey 125 amino acid residues.
Sea slug (a mollusk) 127
 Comparison Methods
‡ There are 3 methods used to compare the DNA
sequences of different species:

MDNA Sequencing
MDNA Fingerprinting
MDNA-DNA Hybridization

‡ All these methods involves first isolating the

corresponding DNA segment from each species.
 DNA-DNA H
B IDIZATION
‡ DNA-DNA hybridization is a technique used to
compare the relationship between two species
of organisms.

‡ The DNA from the two species to be compared

is extracted

‡ It is then purified and cut into short pieces (e.g.,

600-800 base pairs).

‡ The DNA double strand is then separated by

heating (92OC) into two single strands.
‡ The single-stranded DNA of one species is
allowed to anneal with a single stranded
DNA of the other species.

‡ The mixture is then cooled.

‡ The more similar the DNA, the more the

pieces will anneal and form hybrid DNA
fragments.

‡ Strands with a high degree of similarity will

bind more firmly (meaning there will be
many complementary base-pairing).
‡ To assess more the degree of similarity,
the DNA hybrid mixture is heated again.

‡ ãoorly matched strands separate easily

even at low temperatures compared to
well-matched strands.

‡ The DNA from closely related species

should match well.

‡ Those from distantly related species will

be less closely matched.