Chemical Energetics

Energy in Chemistry

Energy is the ability to do work.

Potential Energy
is energy due to the position of an object.

Kinetic Energy
is energy due to the movement of an object.

Total Energy = Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

 Energy Changes

Lower energy states are more stable and are favored

over higher energy states.

Energy is neither created nor destroyed

– it is conserved
– and can be converted from one form to another.
Figure 1.3A Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A gravitational system. The potential energy gained when a

lifted weight is converted to kinetic energy as the weight falls.

A lower energy state is more stable.

Figure 1.3B Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of two balls attached by a spring. The potential

energy gained by a stretched spring is converted to kinetic energy
when the moving balls are released.

Energy is conserved when it is transformed.

Figure 1.3C Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of oppositely charged particles. The potential energy gained

when the charges are separated is converted to kinetic energy as the
attraction pulls these charges together.
Figure 1.3D Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in chemical

potential energy than the exhaust. As the fuel burns, some of its
potential energy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving car.
 Combustion 燃烧
• Complete combustion
– Methane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + he
at/energy
– CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
• Incomplete combustion
– Methane + oxygen  carbon monoxide + water +
heat/energy
– 2CH4(g) + 32O2(g) 2CO (g) + 4H2O(l)
 Chemical Energy
• Energy is released when fuel is burnt/combusted
– exothermic reactions ( 放热反应 ).
• Energy level diagram – total energy decreases.
Chemical Bonds in Chemical Reactions
• In any chemical reaction, old chemical bonds i
n the reactant are broken, and new chemical b
onds in the product are formed.
 Bond Energy
• Energy is adsorbed when bonds are broken.
– Endothermic 吸热
• Energy is released when bonds are formed.
– Exothermic 放热
Energy Change during Phase Change
 Fuel
• A substance which ca
n be conveniently us
ed as a source of ener
gy.
 A Perfect Fuel
• Cheap
• Available in large quantities
• Safe to store and transport
• Easy to ignite and burn, causing no pollution
• Capable of releasing large amounts of energy

• Have we found the perfect fuel?

 Fossil Fuel
• Fuels formed from the remains of plants and anima
ls, which were fossilized over 200 million years ag
o during the carboniferous ( 石碳纪 ) era.
• Coal, oil, and natural gas.
• Release energy in the form of heat when they unde
rgo combustion.
– Fossil fuel + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energ
y
– CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 Major Uses of Fossil Fuel
• Electricity
• Major feedstock (raw material) for the chemic
als and pharmaceuticals industries
• Domestic and industrial heating and cooking
• Fuels for various forms of vehicle transport
– Cars, planes, ships, etc.
 Alternative Sources of Energy
• Fossil fuel is limited and non-renewable.
– Approximately 60 years’ supply of crude oil remain
ing.
• Solution: alternative, renewable sources of en
ergy.
 Nuclear Power – Nuclear Fission 裂变

• Fission unstable nucleus of

a radioactive isotope splits
up, forming smaller atoms
and producing a large amo
unt of energy.
• Chain reaction
• Boron control rods: absorb
neutrons and slow down th
e chain rxn.
 Problems
• Highly radioactive waste materials
– Difficult to store and disposal
• Leaks of radioactive materials
– Three Mile Island in the US, 1979
– Chernobyl in Ukraine, 1989
– Fukushima in Japan, 2011
 Hydrogen
• Hydrogen + oxygen  water
• 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)

• Advantage
• Clean – virtually no
exhaust pollution
• Unlimited supply of H2
from the electrolysis of
water
• Disadvantage
• Costly
 Hydrogen
• Hydrogen (H2) is being explored as a fuel for pa
ssenger vehicles. It can be used in fuel cells to p
ower electric motors or burned in internal com
bustion engines.
• It is an environmentally friendly fuel that has t
he potential to dramatically reduce our depen
dence on imported oil, but several significant c
hallenges must be overcome before it can be
widely used.
• Benefits
• Produced Domestically. Hydrogen can be produ
ced domestically from several sources, reducing
our dependence on petroleum imports.
• Environmentally Friendly. Hydrogen produces n
o air pollutants or greenhouse gases when used i
n fuel cells; it produces only nitrogen oxides (NO
x) when burned in internal combustion engines.
 Challenges
Availability. Hydrogen is only available at a handful of locations,
mostly in California, though more hydrogen fuelling stations are
planned for the future.
Vehicle Cost & Availability. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), which run o
n hydrogen, are currently more expensive than conventional veh
icles, and they are not yet available for sale to the general public
. However, costs have decreased significantly, and commercially
available FCVs are expected within the next few years.
Onboard Fuel Storage. Hydrogen contains much less energy tha
n gasoline or diesel on a per-volume basis, making it difficult to s
tore enough hydrogen onboard an FCV to go as far as a compara
ble gasoline vehicle between fill-ups.
 Cells and Batteries
• A chemical cell is one which produces electrica
l energy from chemical energy.
– The reverse of a electrolytic cell.
 Cells and Batteries
• The electrical energy is produced as a resul
t of the transfer of electrons which takes pl
ace during the chemical reaction via a redo
x process.
– Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
– 2H +(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
 Fuel Cell
• Similar to the previous voltaic cell.
– Converting chemical energy to electrical energy.
• Except that reagents are supplied continuously
to the electrodes.
– Usually hydrogen and oxygen.
Fuel Cells
 Fuel Cell
• O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-  4OH-(aq)
• H2(g) + 2OH- (aq)  2H2O(l) + 2e-
 Nuclear Power – Nuclear Fission 裂变
• either a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay pro
cess in which the nucleus of an atom splits into sma
ller parts (lighter nuclei)
• often produces free neutrons and gamma photons,
and releases a very large amount of energy
Chain Reaction
Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Reactor
 Problems
• Highly radioactive waste materials
– Difficult to store and disposal
• Leaks of radioactive materials
– Three Mile Island in the US, 1979
– Chernobyl in Ukraine, 1989
– Fukushima in Japan, 2011