Silk

Origin
• Silk originated in China and, according to legend, the idea to spin threads from the cocoons of silkworms to
produce cloth was born by the emperor Fu-Xi in around 3000 BC. The production process itself was discovered
by Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih, wife of the legendary Chinese emperor Huang-Ti, also known as the Yellow Emperor.

• For a long time, the Chinese were only able to produce one variety of silk. Silk fibers were unparalleled in their
luxury and value thanks to their natural lustre and fineness, and required an elaborate process to gather the
thread to create a garment. 

• Silk quickly became one of the most valued and traded goods in the world. Still known today as the silk Road,
the most important trade route through the Orient to the West was first used to transport silk in 126 BC, and
later many other luxury goods.

• Silk was an important commodity for China for many millennia. Under various Chinese dynasties, it was
forbidden on pain of death to either reveal the secrets of the manufacturing process or take silkworm
caterpillars or eggs out of the country.
• Nonetheless, silk production had reached Korea around 200 BC after waves of Chinese immigrants arrived
there, and then India by AD 140. Around 552 AD it is believed that two Persian monks smuggled silkworm eggs
to the Eastern Roman Empire of Byzantium, now known as Istanbul.

• Only because of these eggs and the knowledge these monks had acquired in China, was it possible for the
production of silk to happen in southern and central Europe.

• Silk was first primarily produced in Europe in Italy, and then on a more industrial scale in France, but today
China still exports 90% of the world's annual demand for raw silk.
• Sixty per cent of the world’s trade in silk fabrics also comes from China. Other significant silk fabric producing
countries are India, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Japan.

• Silk is a fibre produced by the silkworm in production of its cocoon. It consists mainly of two
proteins, fibroin and sericin. Silk consists of 70–80% fibroin and 20–30% sericin; fibroin being the structural
center of the silk, and sericin being the gum coating the fibers and allowing them to stick to each other.
• Sericin is a protein created by Bombyx mori (silkworms) in the production of silk.
• As the process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larvae, sericulture has been criticized by animal
welfare and rights activists. Mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy
"not to hurt any living thing". This led to Gandhi's promotion of cotton spinning machines
 Types of Silk and silkworms
• There are four types of natural silk which are commercially known and produced in the world.  Among them
mulberry silk is the most important and contributes as much as 90 per cent of world production, therefore, the
term "silk" in general refers to the silk of the mulberry silkworm.

• Three other commercially important types fall into the category of non-mulberry silks namely: Eri silk; Tasar silk;
and Muga silk.  There are also other types of non-mulberry silk, which are mostly wild and exploited in Africa
and Asia, are Anaphe silk, Fagara silk, Coan silk, Mussel silk and Spider silk.

• Bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world comes from this variety and often generally refers to mulberry
silk.  Mulberry silk comes from the silkworm, Bombyx mori L  which solely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant.
 These silkworms are completely domesticated and reared indoors.  Mulberry silk contributes to around 90
percent of the world silk production.
• Formation of silkworm cocoon
 Tasar silk
• The tasar silkworms belong to the genus Antheraea and they are all wild silkworms. There are many varieties such as
the Chinese tasar silkworm Antherae pernyi Guerin which produces the largest quantity of non-mulberry silk in the
world, the Indian tasar silkworm Antheraea mylitte Dury, next in importance, and the Japanese tasar silkworm
Antheraea yamamai Querin which is peculiar to Japan and produces green silk thread
• The Chinese and Japanese tasar worms feed on oak leaves and other allied species. The Indian tasar worms feeds on
leaves of Terminalia and several other minor host plants.  The worms are either uni- or bivoltine and their cocoons like
the mulberry silkworm cocoons can be reeled into raw silk.

Tasar silk tasar silkworm

Eri silk Castor silkworm

Eri silk
• These belong to either of two species namely Samia ricini and Philosamia ricini.  P.ricini (also called as castor silkworm)
is a domesticated one reared on castor oil plant leaves to produce a white or brick-red silk popularly known as Eri silk.
• Since the filament of the cocoons spun by these worms is neither continuous nor uniform in thickness, the cocoons
cannot be reeled and, therefore, the moths are allowed to emerge and the pierced cocoons are used for spinning to
produce the Eri silk yarn.
 Muga silk
• The muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis) also belong to the same genus as tasar worms, but produce an
unusual golden-yellow silk thread which is very attractive and strong.  These are found only in the state of Assam,
India and feed on Persea bombycina and Litsaea monopetala leaves and those of other species.
• The quantity of muga silk produced is quite small and is mostly used for the making of traditional dresses in the
State of Assam (India) itself.

muga silk Muga silkworm

Anaphe silk
• This silk of southern and central Africa is produced by silkworms of the genus Anaphe: A. moloneyi Druce, A.
panda Boisduval, A. reticulate Walker, A. ambrizia Butler, A. carteri Walsingham, A. venata Butler and A. infracta
Walsingham.  They spin cocoons in communes, all enclosed by a thin layer of silk
• The tribal people collect them from the forest and spin the fluff into a raw silk that is soft and fairly lustrous.  The
silk obtained from A. infracta is known locally as "book", and those from A. moleneyi as "Trisnian-tsamia" and
"koko" (Tt).  The fabric is elastic and stronger than that of mulberry silk.  Anaphe silk is used, for example, in velvet
and plush. Anaphe silk Anaphe silkworm
 Fagara silk
• Fagara silk is obtained from the giant silk moth Attacus atlas L. and a few other related species or races inhabiting
the Indo-Australian bio-geographic region, China and Sudan.
•  They spin light-brown cocoons nearly 6 cm long with peduncles of varying lengths (2-10 cm).

Coan silk faras silkworm (Attacus atlas L.) fagara silk

• The larvae of Pachypasa atus D., from the Mediterranean bio-geographic region (southern Italy, Greece,
Romania, Turkey, etc.), feed primarily on trees such as pine, ash cypress, juniper and oak. They spin white
cocoons measuring about 8.9 cm x 7.6 cm.
• In ancient times, this silk was used to make the crimson-dyed apparel worn by the dignitaries of Rome; however,
commercial production came to an end long ago because of the limited output and the emergence of superior
varieties of silk.
Coan silkworm Example of coan silk
 Mussel silk
• Whereas the non-mulberry silks previously described are of insect origin, mussel silk is obtained from a bivalve,
Pinna squamosa, found in the shallow waters along the Italina and Dalmatian shores of the Adriatic.
• The strong brown filament, or byssus, is secreted by the mussel to anchor it to a rock or other surface.  The
byssus is combed and then spun into a silk popularly known as “fish wool”.  Its production is largely confined to
Taranto, Italy.

bivalve, Pinna squamosa example

Spider silk Spider silk Cloth

Spider Silk
• Spider silk – another non-insect variety – is soft and fine, but also strong and elastic. The commercial production
of this silk comes from certain Madagascan species, including Nephila madagascarensis, Miranda
aurentia and Epeira.  
• As the spinning tubes (spinne-rules) are in the fourth and fifth abdominal segments, about a dozen individuals are
confined by their abdominal part to a frame from which the accumulated fibre is reeled out four or five times a
month.
•  Because of the high cost of production, spider silk is not used in the textile industry; however, durability and
 Sericulture
• Sericulture, the production of raw silk by means of raising caterpillars (larvae)which involves taking Care of the
silkworm from the egg stage through completion of the cocoon and production of mulberry trees that provide
leaves upon which the worms feed.

• The silkworm caterpillar builds its cocoon by producing and surrounding itself with a long, continuous fibre, or
filament. Liquid secretions from two large glands within the insect emerge from the spinneret, a single exit tube
in the head, hardening upon exposure to air and forming twin filaments composed of fibroin, a protein material.

• A second pair of glands secretes sericin, a gummy substance that cements the two filaments together. Because
an emerging moth would break the cocoon filament, the larva is killed in the cocoon by steam or hot air at the
chrysalis stage.

• Silk is a continuous filament within each cocoon, having a usable length of about 600 to 900 meters (2,000 to
3,000 feet).

• It is freed by softening the binding sericin and then locating the filament end and unwinding, or reeling, the
filaments from several cocoons at the same time, sometimes with a slight twist, forming a single strand.
• Several silk strands, each too thin for most uses, are twisted together to make thicker, stronger yarn in the
process called throwing, producing various yarns differing according to the amount and direction of the twist
imparted.

• Silk containing sericin is called raw silk. The gummy substance, affording protection during processing, is usually
retained until the yarn or fabric stage and is removed by boiling the silk in soap and water, leaving it soft and
lustrous, with weight reduced by as much as 30 percent.

• Spun silk is made from short lengths obtained from damaged cocoons or broken off during processing, twisted
together to make yarn.

• The thickness of silk filament yarn is expressed in terms of denier, the number of grams of weight per 9,000
metres (9,846 yards) of length.

• Silk is sometimes in a process called weighting treated with a finishing substance, such as metallic salts, to
increase weight, add density, and improve draping quality.

• the degumming process leaves silk lustrous and semitransparent, with a smooth surface that does not readily
retain soil.
• There has long been interest in devising ways to produce silk that is stronger and more elastic than that
produced by silkworms or traditional sericulture methods.

• One approach has involved the introduction of spider silk genes into the silkworm genome; spider silk is known
for its remarkable strength and elasticity, but it cannot be mass produced by farming spiders.

• Genetically modified silkworms spin a strong composite silk that has many potential applications.

• Another expensive way is Ahimsa silk. It is environment friendly and more expensive.
 Ahimsa Silk (An environment friendly process)
• Kusuma Rajaiah, an Indian man, has developed a new technique for producing silk that does not require killing
silk worms in the process.
• A company in Oregon, Peace Silk, already uses this technique. Right now, producing a silk saree involves killing of
at least 50 thousand silkworms. Rajaiah has won the patent for producing the "Ahimsa" silk. Ahimsa is a
religious concept which advocates non-violence and a respect for all life.

•  However, the production of the silk is more expensive. For example, a saree which costs 2400 rupees to
produce using regular silk, will cost 4000 rupees when made with Ahimsa silk.

• Rajaiah says: "My inspiration is Mahatma.” He gave a message to the Indian silk industry that if silk can be
produced without killing silkworms, it would be better. He dreamt but that did not happen in his lifetime.

• Rajaiah says he started giving a serious thought to "Ahimsa" silk when in the 1990s. Janaki Venkatraman, wife of
the former President, asked if she could get a silk saree that is made without killing silk worms.

• Yarn for a silk saree is usually produced by throwing live cocoons of silkworm into boiling water. A single saree
needs up to 50,000 cocoons. Rajaiah allows the moth to escape from the cocoon by waiting for 7-10 days and
then uses the shells to produce yarn.
• in the process of Ahimsa Peace Silk production the adult moths are allowed to emerge alive from the cocoons
and then the silk yarn is spun from the open ended or pierced cocoons found in the wild or from those used in
breeding cycles.

• The silk moths best suited for the production of ahimsa silk are the Eri Silk Moth ( Philosamia ricini). These feed
on the castor plant in contrast to the conventional mulberry feeding silk moth. Other species that are being used
for Ahimsa Peace Silk are the Tassar moths (both tropical and temperate) and the Muga Silk Moth .

• These are wild and semi wild silks. Therefore, after this process a silk is produced without killing of silkworms so
all consumers who care for the environment and respect the right of life for all the living beings can wear this
product with a clear conscience and enjoy the soft and luxurious feel of spun silk.

• While ahimsa silk may lack the shine of regular silk, it is comfortable to wear. It’s also wrinkle free and has a
better fall. Now a days it is very much in demand and large range of products are available in the market.

• Ahimsa Peace Silk creates unique products that appeal to the demand of environmentally conscious and non
violent clientele all over the world. It provides an alternative for discerning and aware consumers to make their
choices in such a way that even as they buy silk they are able to accord the respect that our fellow living beings
on the earth deserve from us.
 Degumming of Silk
• The natural gum, sericin, is normally left on the silk during reeling, throwing and weaving. It acts as a size which
protects the fibers from mechanical injury. After the moths emerge, the cocoons must be degummed before
they can be spun into yarn.

• Degumming is the process of removing the sericin, or silk gum, from silk. Removing the gum improves the
sheen, color, hand, and texture of the silk. Because the gum can serve as a protective layer, it is typically left on
the silk until it is ready to dye.

• In some cases, the fabric is woven to completion, and then degummed, to protect the yarn from abrasion on
the loom.

• Degumming is the process of removing the sericin, a sticky substance produced by the silkworm that holds the
strands of silk together. It is also known as silk scouring. Removing the gum improves the lusture, color, hand,
and texture of the silk.
• As much as one-third of the weight may be lost when the gum is removed. Raw silk with the gum still on the
filament is called ‘Hard silk’. Degummed silk is ‘soft silk’.

• Silk degumming can also be accomplished by treated with different alkaline, neutral and acid proteases
(Enzymes).

• The degumming waste liquor that is rich in sericin content is being used as a raw material for the production of
sericin powder.

• The sericin powder is being used in the cosmetic industry as moisturizer, in hair-care products and also as a
sustainable natural textile finish.

• Removal of sericin from the waste degumming liquor also substantially reduces the effluent.

• Preprocessing of silk commonly known as degumming or silk scouring is an essential process to obtain an ideal
fibre because of its modified fibre structure. Silk degumming process is scouring the sericin and some impurities
from silk fibre.
• As the major amino acids groups in sericin is hydrophilic, water and heat treatment destroys the hydrogen
bonding of the sericin so that sericin dissolves into the water during the degumming process.
 Properties of silk
• leaving aside the rather demanding care, silk is one of the most comfortable fiber fabrics in the world.

• Because of its natural protein structure, silk is the most hypoallergenic of all fabrics

• An all-climate fabric, silk is warm and cozy in winter and comfortably cool when temperatures rise. Its natural
temperature-regulating properties give silk this paradoxical ability to cool and warm simultaneously. Silk garments thus
outperform other fabrics in both summer and winter. Silk worn as a second layer warms without being bulky

• Silk is highly absorbent and dries quickly. It can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling damp. Silk will
absorb perspiration while letting your skin breathe.

• In spite of its delicate appearance, silk is relatively robust and its smooth surface resists soil and odors well

• While silk abrasion resistance is moderate, it is the strongest natural fiber and, surprisingly, it easily competes with steel
yarn in tensile strength

• Silk takes color well, washes easily, and is easy to work with in spinning, weaving, knitting, and sewing
• Silk is lower in density than fibers such as cotton wool and rayon, is moisture-absorbent, retaining as much as a
third of its weight in moisture without feeling damp, and has excellent dyeing properties.

• it is more heat-resistant than wool, decomposing at about 170° C (340° F). Silk loses strength over a long period
of time without appropriate storage conditions and tends to decompose with extensive exposure to sunlight but
is rarely attacked by mildew.

• It is not harmed by mild alkaline solutions and common dry-cleaning solvents.

• Friction imparts a static charge, especially in low humidity. The rustling sound, or scoop, associated with crisp silk
fabrics is not a natural property of the fibre but is developed by processing treatments, and it does not indicate
quality, as is sometimes believed.

• Silk has good strength, resisting breakage when subjected to weights of about 4 grams (0.5 ounce) per denier.
Wetting reduces strength by about 15–25 percent.

•  A silk filament can be stretched about 20 percent beyond its original length before breaking but does not
immediately resume its original length when stretched more than about 2 percent.
• Silk mixes well with other animal and vegetable fibers.

Handling
• In contrast to the widespread opinion that silk can only be dry cleaned, silk products can be washed by hand
without being damaged.

• wash your garment in cold water and tumble dry.

• If you hate hand washing, you can also machine wash in cold water.  The hand-dyed nature of the fabric can
cause some bleeding, so wash it by itself, or with like colored items.

• Silk Velvet can be steamed to remove wrinkles, but can not be ironed. If you don't have a steamer, get your silk
velvet garment damp, then tumble dry with a towel on high heat. This will fluff up the nap and usually removes
wrinkles.

• Raw Silk and Silk Charmeuse can be steamed, or ironed on the reverse side.

• Silk Organza is best ironed rather than steamed. 

• Always remember that silk is a protein structure much like human hair. Heat will damage it.

• Silk should always be ironed from the backside. It should always still be slightly moist.

• Handle wet silk with even greater care as it is very delicate.

• Soak silk in luke warm water for 3-5 minutes.

• If silk is dark or printed, do not let it soak. Just quickly wash it in cold water.

• Use a mild soap or specially formulated silk shampoos

 The Do Not’s
• Never spray silk with perfume or deodorant

• Never bleach silk

• Never expose silk to direct sunlight for longer periods of time

• Don't spray silk with water while ironing

• Don't treat individual stains with water

• Always iron the backside only

• Never wring dry