Gait Assessment

Dr Sonali Soumyashree
BPT, MPT(Neurology)
Lecturer, GDGU
Introduction
• Gait is described as a translatory progression of the body as a whole,
produced by coordinated, rotatory movement of body segments.
• Normal gait is rhythmic & characterized by alternating, propulsive and
retropulsive motions of L/E.
• Gait requires co-ordination, balance, intact kinaesthetic and proprioceptive
senses and integrity of the joints and muscles.
• 3 main tasks involved are:
- Weight acceptance
- Single limb Support
- Swing limb advancement
 PURPOSES OF GAIT ANALYSIS
1. To assist with understanding the gait characteristics of a particular disorder. his includes
the following:

• Obtaining accurate descriptions of gait patterns and gait variables typical of different
conditions
• Identifying and describing gait deviations present, or typically present in specific disorders
• Determining balance, endurance, energy expenditure, and safety
• Determining the functional ambulation capabilities of the patient in relation to functional
ambulation demands of the home, community, and work environments
• Classifying the severity of disability
• Predicting a patient’s future status
2. To assist with movement diagnosis by:
• Identifying and describing gait deviations and describing the
differences between a patient’s performance and the parameters of
normal gait
• Analyzing gait deviations and identifying the mechanisms responsible
for producing them
• Examining balance, endurance, energy expenditure, and safety and
determining their impact on gait
3. To inform selection of intervention(s) by guiding the therapist in

• Proposing appropriate treatment of impairments that may improve

gait performance
• Determining the need for adaptive, assistive, orthotic, prosthetic,
protective, or supportive devices or equipment
4. To evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and guide the therapist in:
• Determining how interventions such as therapeutic exercise,
endurance activities, developmental activities, strengthening or
stretching, electrical stimulation, balance training, surgical procedures,
and medication will affect gait
• Determining the effectiveness and fit of devices or equipment
selected in providing joint protection and support, correcting deviations
and dysfunctions, reducing energy expenditure, and promoting safe
locomotive function.
GAIT TERMINOLOGY
Gait Cycle
• The fundamental unit of walking is the gait cycle, which has both spatial
(distance) and temporal (time) parameters.

• In normal walking, a gait cycle begins when the heel of the reference
extremity contacts the supporting surface and ends when the heel of the
same extremity contacts the ground again
• The gait cycle is divided into two periods,
stance Phase: 60% of gait cycle
Swing Phase: 40% of gait cycle
Stance Phase Swing Phase
1) Heel strike 1) Acceleration
2) FootFlat 2) Mid Swing
3) Mid Stance 3) Decceleration
4) Heel off
5) Toe off
Comparison of Gait Terminology
• Rancho Los Amigos
Stance
Initial Contact: Beginning of stance
when heel or some other portion of foot
Loading Response: Body weight rapidly
loads onto lead limb from trailing limb.
Hip remains stable, knee flexes to
absorb shock, and forefoot lowers to
ground. Immediately follows initial
contact and is final component of initial
double limb stance. Ends when opposite
limb lifts from ground for swing.
• Traditional
Stance
Heel Strike: Beginning of
stance contacts ground.
Component of initial double
limb stance. when heel first
contacts ground.
Foot Flat: Immediately follows
heel strike when sole of foot
contacts floor
• Rancho Los Amigos • Traditional
Stance Stance
Mid Stance: Trunk progresses from behind Midstance: Point at which body
to in front of ankle over single stable limb. passes directly over reference
First half of single limb support. Starts
when contralateral foot lifts from ground
extremity.
for swing.
Terminal Stance: Trunk continues forward Heel Off: Point following mid stance
progression relative to foot. Heel rises when reference limb’s heel leaves
from ground and limb achieves trailing
limb posture. Second half of single limb
ground.
support. Ends with contralateral initial
contact.
• Rancho Los Amigos
Swing
Pre-swing: Body weight rapidly unloads from reference
limb and reference limb prepares for swing during this
terminal double limb stance period. Starts with
contralateral initial contact and ends at ipsilateral limb
toe off.
Initial Swing: Starts when reference foot lifts from
ground. Hip, knee, and ankle rapidly flex for clearance
and advancement during this initial 1/3 of swing
Mid Swing: Thigh continues advancing, knee begins to
extend, and ankle achieves neutral posture during this
middle 1/3 of swing.
Terminal Swing: During this final 1/3 of swing, knee
achieves maximal extension and ankle remains at
neutral in preparation for heel first initial contact. Ends
when foot contacts ground.
• Traditional
Swing
Toe Off: Point following heel- off when only the
reference limb’s toe is contacting ground
Acceleration: Beginning portion of swing from
reference limb toe off to point when reference
limb is directly under the body
Mid swing: Portion of swing when reference limb
passes directly below body. Extends from the
end of acceleration to beginning of deceleration
Deceleration: Portion of swing when reference
limb is decelerating in preparation for heel strike.
TYPES OF GAIT ANALYSES
1. kinematic : Kinematic gait analysis is used to describe movement
patterns without regard for the forces involved in producing the
movement. Kinematic gait analysis can be either qualitative or
quantitative
2. Kinetic: Kinetic gait analysis is used to determine the forces
involved in gait
 Kinematic Qualitative Gait Analysis
• Primary variable examined in a qualitative kinematic analysis is displacement, which includes a description of patterns of
movement, deviations from normal body postures, and joint angles at specific points in the gait cycle.
• Methods in this are:
1. Observational Gait Analysis

2. Functional Ambulation Profile and Modifications

3. Iowa Level of Assistance Scale
4. Functional Independence Measure
5. Functional Assessment Measure
6. Community Balance and Mobility Scale
7. Gait Abnormality Rating Scale and Modifications
8. Dynamic Gait Index
9. Figure-of-8 Walk Test
 Observational Gait Analysis
• Observational gait analysis (OGA) often serves as an essential component of many physical
therapy examinations.
• The results of an OGA are used to identify structural and activity limitations, as well as to
plan an intervention and assess the outcomes.
• The Rancho Los Amigos Observational Gait Analysis system is probably the most common
OGA system used by physical therapists.
• This method involves a systematic examination of the movement patterns of key body
segments (foot, ankle, knee, hip, pelvis, and trunk) during each phase of the gait cycle.
• The system uses a recording form comprising 45 descriptors of common gait deviations
such as toe drag, excess plantarflexion and dorsiflexion, excess knee varus or valgus, pelvic
hiking, and forward or backward trunk leans.
• If therapists decide to use an OGA method, they should consider using a digital video
recorder (DVR) that has the capability of slowing or stopping motion.
• A visual record is especially important when using the Rancho Los Amigos format because
of the time involved in examining a large number of variables at six body part
• Observational Gait Analysis Process:
1) identification and accurate description of the patient’s gait pattern
and any existing deviations.
2) determination of the causes of the deviations.
• Guidelines for Performing an OGA
1. Select the area in which the patient will walk and measure the distance that you
want the patient to traverse.
2. Position yourself to allow an unobstructed view of the subject. If digitally
recording, the cameras should be positioned to view the patient’s entire body (LEs
as well as the head and trunk) from both the sagittal and coronal perspectives.
3. Select the joint or body segment to be observed first (e.g., ankle and foot), and
mentally review the normative joint positions and muscle activity for the phase of
the gait period being observed (e.g., initial contact).
4. Select the plane of observation that will be used first, either the sagittal plane
(view from the side) or the coronal plane (view from the front and/or back) and
which side of the patient’s body (either right or left) will be observed first.
5. Observe the selected body segment at a specific phase (e.g., initial contact) and
make a decision about the segment’s joint position. Note any deviations from
normal.
6. Observe either the same body segment during the next phase or another segment at the
same phase (e.g., initial contact) of the gait period. As described in number 5 above, again
make a decision about the segment’s joint position. Note any deviations from normal.
7. Repeat the process described in number 6 above until you have completed an observation
of all segments across all phases of the gait cycle in both the saggital and coronal planes.
Remember to concentrate on one body segment or joint at a time during one phase of the
gait cycle. Do not jump from one segment to another or from one phase to another.
8. Always perform observations on both sides (right and left). Although only one side may be
involved pathologically, the other side of the body may be affected.
9. Hypothesize likely causes of gait deviations (e.g., impairments in strength, impairments in
ROM, or spasticity).
10. Confirm likely causes of gait deviations based on physical therapy clinical evaluation. 11.
Develop and implement a treatment plan to address key underlying causes of gait
dysfunction.
12. Periodically use OGA to reassess the patient’s gait and determine response to treatment.
 Common gait deviations seen:
IN ANKLE
1. Toes or forefoot contact
2. Foot flat contact
3. Foot slap
4. Excess plantarflexion
5. Excess dorsiflexion
6. Early heel rise
7. No heel off
8. Toe clawing
9. Excess inversion or eversion
10. Drag
In Knee
1. Excess knee flexion
2. Limited knee flexion
3. Knee hyperex tension
4. Wobble
In Hip
5. Excess flexion
6. Limited flexion
7. Circumduction
8. Internal rotation
9. External rotation
10. Abduction
11. Adduction
• Pelvis and Trunk Deviation
1. Backward trunk lean
2. Forward trunk lean
3. Ipsilateral trunk lean
4. Contralateral trunk lean
5. Contralateral pelvic drop
6. Ipsilateral pelvic drop
7. Pelvic hike
OGA in Neuromuscular Disorders
• The gait patterns of individuals with neuromuscular deficits are
influenced primarily by weakness, abnormalities in muscle tone and
synergistic organization, influences of non integrated early reflexes,
diminished influence of righting and balance reactions, dissociation
among body parts, and incoordination.
• In gait, a loss of control over the sequential timing of muscular activity
may result in asymmetrical step and stride lengths.
• In the presence of multiple muscle involvement or neurological deficits
that affect balance, coordination, and muscle tone, the deviations
observed and the analysis of these deviations will be more complex .
• An individual with spasticity (e.g., an individual with diplegic CP) may have a
posteriorly tilted pelvis, forward flexion of the upper trunk, protracted
scapulae, and somewhat excessive neck extension.
• Excessive hip flexion with adduction and internal rotation (scissoring) may
be observed during stance and may be accompanied by either excessive
knee flexion or hyperextension.
• During late stance, plantarflexor weakness may allow the ankle to collapse
into excess dorsiflexion and the knee into excess flexion.
• Alternatively, the ankle may be positioned in excess dorsiflexion in late
stance as a means of accommodating a knee flexion contracture or
hamstring tightness/spasticity.
• In individuals with low muscle tone (hypotonia) in the trunk, core
stability (tonic extension and co-contraction of axial muscles) is
diminished.
• The pelvis may be anteriorly tilted so that the upper trunk is slightly
extended.
• The scapulae may be retracted and the head may be forward. During
stance, the hip may be flexed and the knee may be hyperextended,
accompanied by ankle plantarflexion.
• The foot may be pronated with the majority of body weight borne on
the medial border.
Functional Ambulation Profile and
Modifications
• The Functional Ambulation Profile (FAP), developed by Arthur J. Nelson, is designed to
examine gait skills on a continuum from standing balance in the parallel bars to
independent ambulation.
• A stopwatch is used to measure the amount of time required either to maintain a
position or perform a task.
• The test consists of three phases:
• In the first phase, the patient is asked to perform three tasks in the parallel bars:
bilateral stance, uninvolved leg stance, and involved leg stance.
• In the second phase, the patient is asked to transfer weight from one LE to the other
as rapidly as possible.
• In the third phase, the patient is asked to walk 20 ft (6 m) in the parallel bars, with an
assistive device, and, if possible, independently.
 Iowa Level of Assistance Scale
• The Iowa Level of Assistance Scale (ILAS)56 examines four functional tasks: getting out of
bed, standing from bed, ambulating 15 ft (4.57 m), and walking up and down three steps.
• The patient’s performance on the tasks is rated according to the following seven levels:
(1) not tested for safety reasons;
(2) activity attempted but not completed;
(3) maximum assistance (therapist applies three or more points of contact);
(4) moderate assistance (therapist applies two points of contact);
(5) minimal assistance (therapist provides one point of contact);
(6) standby assistance (no therapist contact but therapist not comfortable leaving
patient); and
(7) independence
Functional Independence Measure
• FIM is an 18-item measure that examines elements of a patient’s
physical, psychosocial, and social function.
• he FIM Locomotion: Walk/Wheelchair Guide is related to gait and
includes a seven-point level of assistance rating scale ranging from
complete independence to total assistance.
• LOCOMOTION: WALK/WHEELCHAIR: Includes walking, once in a
standing position, or if using a wheelchair, once in a seated position,
on a level surface. Performs safely. Indicate the most frequent mode
of locomotion (Walk or Wheelchair). If both are used about equally,
code: “Both
NO HELPER
7 Complete Independence—Subject walks a minimum of 150 ft (50 m) without
assistive devices. Does not use a wheelchair. Performs safely.

6 Modified Independence—Subject walks a minimum of 150 ft (50 m) but uses a

brace (orthosis) or prosthesis on leg, special adaptive shoes, cane, crutches, or
walkerette; takes more than reasonable time or there are safety considerations. If not
walking, subject operates manual or motorized wheelchair independently for a
minimum of 150 ft (50 m); turns around; maneuvers the chair to a table, bed, toilet;
negotiates at least a 3% grade; maneuvers on rugs and over door sills.

5 Exception (Household Ambulation)—Subject walks only short distances (a minimum

of 50 ft or 17 m) independently with or without a device. Takes more than reasonable
time, or there are safety considerations, or operates a manual or motorized
wheelchair independently only short distances (a minimum of 50 ft or 17 m).
HELPER
5 Supervision If walking, subject requires standby supervision, cueing, or coaxing to go a
minimum of 150 ft (50 m). If not walking, requires standby supervision, cueing, or
coaxing to go a minimum of 150 ft (50 m) in wheelchair.

4 Minimal Contact Assistance—Subject performs 75% or more of locomotion effort to go

a minimum of 150 ft (50 m).

3 Moderate Assistance—Subject performs 50% to 74% of locomotion effort to go a

minimum of 150 ft (50 m).

2 Maximal Assistance—Subject performs 25% to 49% of locomotion effort to go a

minimum of 50 ft (17 m). Requires assistance of one person only.
1 Total Assistance—Subject performs less than 25% of effort, or requires assistance of
two people, or does not walk or wheel a minimum of 50 ft (17 m).
Functional Assessment Measure
• The 12-item Functional Assessment Measure (FAM) was developed to
provide a measure of disability that reflected the communication,
psychosocial adjustment, and cognitive functions of the populations
of individuals who sustained traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke.
• The FAM uses a seven-point rating scale modeled after the FIM to
examine the individual’s level or degree of independence, amount of
assistance required, use of adaptive or assistive devices, and
percentage of tasks completed successfully .
• The Functional Assessment Measure (FAM) Items
1. Swallowing
2.Car Transfer
3. Community Access
4.Reading
5. Writing
6. Speech Intelligibility
7.Emotional Status
8. Adjustment to Limitations
9. Employability
10. Orientation
11. Attention
12. Safety Judgment
The 12 items of the FAM are not designed to stand alone but to be added to the 18 items of the
FIM to produce the FIM + FAM.
Community Balance and Mobility Scale
• The Community Balance and Mobility Scale52 was developed to evaluate
balance and mobility skills in individuals who have experienced mild to
moderate TBI.
• The scale consists of 13 items that include opportunities to assess multitasking
(e.g., walking and looking at a target placed to the right or left), sequencing of
movements (crouching to pick up an object from the floor and then continuing
to walk), and complex motor skills (laterally and rapidly moving sideways by
crossing one foot over the other and having to respond to unexpected
commands to change direction).
• Six items are performed on both the right and left side, each of which is rated
on a 6-point scale from 0 (poorest performance) through 5 (best performance)
Gait Abnormality Rating Scale and
Modifications
• The Gait Abnormality Rating Scale (GARS)62 was designed to distinguish
nursing home residents with a recent history of two or more falls from
a control group of residents without a recent fall history.
• The test developers selected 16 features of the gait cycle and a scoring
system, in which the features are scored on a 0 to 3 rating scale (0 =
normal, 1 = mildly impaired, 2 = moderately impaired, and 3 = severely
impaired).
• Among the 16 features rated, arm-swing amplitude, upper extremity
(UE) and LE synchrony, and guardedness best distinguished fallers from
other subjects.
• Modified GARS (GARS-M), which is a sevenitem version of the GARS,
contains the following variables: (1) variability, (2) guardedness, (3)
staggering, (4) foot contact, (5) hip ROM, (6) shoulder extension, and
(7) arm–heel strike synchrony.
• Scoring is the sum of the seven items; the total score represents a
rank ordering for risk of falling based on the number of gait
abnormalities recognized and the severity of any abnormality
identified.
• A higher score is associated with a more abnormal gait
Dynamic Gait Index
• Dynamic Gait Index(DGI) was designed to examine the ability to
adapt gait to changes in task demands.
• The DGI uses a 0 (severe impairment) to 3 (normal) scale to rate
performance on eight items, including gait on even surfaces, gait
while changing speeds, gait and head turns in a vertical or horizontal
direction, stepping over obstacles, and gait with pivot turns and steps.
• The Four-Item Dynamic Gait Index consists of only half of the original
eight DGI items (i.e., gait on level surfaces, changes in gait speed, and
horizontal and vertical head turn activities).
Figure-of-8 Walk Test
• Figure-of-8 Walk Test (F8W)78 was developed to assess both curved
and straight path walking in older adults with walking difficulties.
• The number of steps, total time, and smoothness of movement are
examined as an individual completes a single figure-of-8 walk around
two cones spaced 5 ft apart.
 Kinematic Quantitative Gait Analysis
• Kinematic quantitative gait analysis is used to obtain information on spatial and temporal gait
variables, as well as motion patterns
• The Spatial and temporal parameters are:
Speed : A scalar quantity that has magnitude but not direction
Free speed : A person’s normal walking speed
Slow speed : A speed slower than a person’s normal speed
Fast speed : A rate faster than normal.
Cadence : The number of steps taken per unit of time (e.g., steps/minute).
Velocity :A measure of a body’s motion in a given direction.
Linear velocity: The rate at which a body moves in a straight line.
Angular velocity : The rate of rotation of a body segment around an axis.
Walking velocity : The rate of linear forward motion of the body. This is measured in either
centimeters per second or meters per minute
• Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Acceleration is usually measured in
meters per second per second (m/s2).
• Angular acceleration Stride time: The rate of change of the angular velocity of a body with respect to
time. Angular acceleration is usually measured in radians per second per second (radians/s2).
• Stride Time: The amount of time that elapses during one stride; that is, from one foot contact (heel
strike if possible) until the next contact of the same foot (heel strike).
• Step time: The amount of time that elapses between consecutive right and left foot contacts (heel
strikes). Both right and left step times should be measured.
• Stride length: The linear distance between two successive points of contact of the same foot. It is
measured in centimeters or meters
• Swing time: The amount of time during the gait cycle that one foot is off the ground
• Double support time :The amount of time spent in the gait cycle when both lower extremities are in
contact with the supporting surface.
• Cycle time (stride time) : The amount of time required to complete a gait cycle
• Step length: The linear distance between two successive points of contact of the right and left lower
extremities.
• Width of walking base (step width): The width of the walking base (base of support) is the linear
distance (in the frontal plane) between one foot and the opposite foot.
• Foot angle (degree of toe out or toe in) : The angle of foot placement with respect to the
line of progression. Measured in degrees
• Bilateral stance time (for the FAP) : The length of time up to 30 seconds that a person can
stand upright in the parallel bars bearing weight on both lower extremities
• Uninvolved stance time (for the FAP) : The length of time up to 30 seconds that an
individual can stand in the parallel bars while bearing weight on the uninvolved lower
extremity (involved extremity is raised off the supporting surface
• Involved stance time (for the FAP): The length of time up to 30 seconds that an individual
can stand in the parallel bars on the involved lower extremity (uninvolved lower extremity
is raised off the supporting surface).
• Dynamic weight transfer rate (for the FAP): The rate at which an individual standing in
the parallel bars can transfer weight from one extremity to another. Measured in seconds
from the first lift-off to the last lift-off.
• Parallel bar ambulation (for the FAP): Length of time required for an individual to walk
the length of the parallel bars as rapidly as possible. Two trials are averaged to obtain this
measurement. Measurement is in seconds
6-Minute Walk Test
• In the 6MWT,109,110 the distance covered walking at a comfortable
pace for 6 minutes is determined.
• It is used to assess walking endurance in clients with a variety of
underlying conditions, including Parkinson’s disease, acquired brain
injury, and stroke.
• Method: clients walk as far as they can at their usual pace for 6
minutes while using their customary assistive devices and orthotics.
• Scoring:The final distance walked (in meters) is divided by either 6 to
determine average velocity in m/min or by 360 if reporting as m/sec.
Timed Walk Tests (5 m, 10 m, and 30 m)
• Timed walked tests measure how long it takes to walk a specified distance
and then use these data to calculate an average walking speed.
• Different distances have been used, including 5 m,10 and 30 m.
• Method: Client ambulate across a 14-m walkway using his or her traditional
assistive and LE orthotic devices. The time (seconds) required to traverse the
middle 10 m of the walkway is recorded with a stopwatch. Two repetitions
are completed at the client’s preferred comfortable speed and at a fast pace.
• Scoring: Speed (m/sec) is calculated by dividing 10 m by the time (in
seconds) required to traverse the path. To determine speed in m/min, the
previously calculated speed is multiplied by 60.
Low-Cost Instrumentation for Quantifying
Spatial and Temporal Variables
1. Accelerometers: During walking, the body generates forces that can be measured
using an accelerometer. These data can then be used to calculate spatial and
temporal gait features such as cadence, step symmetry, step duration, and stride
duration.
2. Gyroscopes Gyroscopes are another type of instrument that may be used for the
estimation of spatial and temporal gait parameters.
• The gyroscope measures the Coriolis acceleration of a vibrating triangular prism.
• The signal from the prism is proportional to the angular velocity. he instruments are
light, portable, and relatively inexpensive.
• A single uniaxial gyroscope attached on the skin surface of the lower leg can provide
data for calculating cadence, determining number of steps, and estimating stride
length and walking speed.
Instrumented Systems for Determining
Spatial and Temporal Gait Parameters
1. Walkways Compared to more complex systems that require
cameras and footswitches, instrumented walkways provide a
reliable, valid, and relatively affordable means for rapidly
quantifying spatial and temporal gait parameters. Two walkways
widely available are the GaitMat™ II and the GAITRite®.
2. Footswitches and Footswitch Systems : Footswitches are pressure-
sensitive switches placed either on the patient’s feet or the inside or
outside of the shoes. Footswitches consist of transducers and a
semiconductor and are used to signal such events as the heel
contacting the ground.
Evaluation of Joint Kinematics (Motion)
1. Electrogoniometers Joint displacement can be measured relatively simply by using
an electrogoniometer. Early electrogoniometer designs included two rigid links
connected by a potentiometer that converted movement into an electrical signal
that was proportional to the degree of movement. The rigid links or arms of the
electrogoniometer were attached to the proximal and distal limb segments.
2. Video-Based Motion Analysis Systems: Two-dimensional (2D) and three-
dimensional (3D) video-based motion analysis systems are available for gait
analysis. Two-dimensional video-based systems use a single digital video camcorder
to track subject motion. Computer software programs then assist with identifying
points of reference. Three-dimensional video-based motion analysis systems use
two or more digital video camcorders to gather 3D coordinate data. Hardware is
used to synchronize data recorded from the various cameras, and postprocessing is
used to identify points of reference either automatically or manually.
 Kinetic Gait Analysis
• Kinetic gait analyses are directed toward determination and analysis of the forces involved in gait, including
ground (floor) reaction forces (GRFs),
joint torques,
center of pressure (COP),
center of mass (COM),
mechanical energy,
moments of force,
power,
support
moments,
work,
joint reaction forces,
intrinsic foot pressure
• Ground reaction forces Vertical, anterior-posterior, and medial-lateral forces created as a
result of foot contact with the supporting surface. These forces are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the force applied by the foot to the ground. Ground reaction
forces are measured with force platforms in newtons (N) or pound force.
• Pressure Pressure = force per unit area. In gait analysis, the parameters that are usually
measured include the peak pressure, the pressure-time integral, and the overall pattern
of pressure distribution under the foot.
• Center of pressure (COP) The point of application of the resultant force. Movement of
the COP as a function of time is used as a measure of stability of a subject who is either
standing or walking on a force plate.
• Torque (moment of force) The turning or rotational effect produced by the application of
a force. The greater the perpendicular distance from the point of application of a force
from the axis of rotation, the greater the turning effect, or torque, produced. Torque is
calculated by multiplying the force by the perpendicular distance from the point of
application of the force and the axis of rotation. Torque = force × perpendicular distance
or moment arm
Instruments for Measuring Kinetic Variables
1. Force Plate Technology :Force plate technology is capable of measuring the GRF, as
well as calculating the COM, acceleration, velocity, displacement, power,and work.
2. Plantar Pressure Measurement Systems : Pressure measurement systems may also
be used with force plates.
• Pressure is equal to force divided by area, and is measured by pressure sensors.
herefore, pressure is equal to the force on the sensor divided by the area of the sensor.
• Plantar pressure measurements are used most commonly in gait analysis to determine
the pressure distribution under the foot: foot-to-ground contact, footto-shoe contact,
and shoe-to-ground contact.
• Pressure measurements may be used to determine orthotic efficacy, ulceration risk in
diabetes, and for regulating weight-bearing following surgery.
3. Isokinetic and Isometric Torque Measurement Systems:
• Simple handheld dynamometers and isokinetic dynamometer systems
can be used to obtain static and dynamic peak torques before
obtaining temporal and spatial measures.
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