Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
for
Chapter 8
of
Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling
2nd Edition
Mark Z. Jacobson
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-4020
jacobson@stanford.edu
March 10, 2005
Reynolds Stress
Stress
Force per unit area (e.g. N m-2 or kg m-1 s-2)
Reynolds stress
Stress that causes a parcel of air to deform during turbulent
motion of air
Fig. 8.1. Deformation by vertical momentum flux w u
zx a w u z
y
ln z 0,m
0 Fig. 6.5
0 |vh|
Roughness Length for Momentum
Over smooth ocean with slow wind (8.9)
a a
z0,m 0.11 0.11
u* a u*
Over rough ocean, fast wind (Charnock relation) (8.10)
u*2
z0,m c
g
Over urban areas containing structures (8.11)
ho So
z0,m 0.5
Ao
Over a vegetation canopy (8.12)
z0,m hc 1 0.91e 0.0075LT
Roughness Length for Momentum
Surface Type z0,m (m) h c (m) d c (m)
Smooth sea 0.00001
Rough sea 0.000015-
0.0015
Ice 0.00001
Snow 0.00005-0.0001
Level desert 0.0003
Short grass 0.03-0.01 0.02-0.1
Long grass 0.04-0.1 0.25-1.0
Savannah 0.4 8 4.8
Agricultural crops 0.04-0.2 0.4-2 0.27-1.3
Orchard 0.5-1.0 5-10 3.3-6.7
Broadleaf evergreen forest 4.8 35 26.3
Broadleaf deciduous trees 2.7 20 15
Broad- and needleleaf trees 2.8 20 15
Needleleaf-evergreen trees 2.4 17 12.8
Needleleaf deciduous trees 2.4 17 12.8
Short vegetation/C4 grassland 0.12 1 0.75
Broadleaf shrubs w/ bare soil 0.06 0.5 0.38
Agriculture/C3 grassland 0.12 1 0.75
2500 m2 l ot w/ a b uilding 8-m 0.26 8
high and 160 m2 silhouette
25,000 m2 lot w/ a building 80-m 5.1 80
high and 3200 m2 silhouette
Table 8.1
Roughness Length for Energy, Moisture
Surface roughness length for energy (8.13)
Dh
z0,h
ku*
Surface roughness length for moisture (8.13)
Dv
z0,v
ku*
Molecular thermal diffusion coefficient (8.14)
a
Dh
a c p,m
Molecular diffusion coefficient of water vapor (8.14)
1.94 1013.25 hPa
T
Dv 2.11 105
273.15 K pa
Turbulence Description
Turbulence
Group of eddies of different size. Eddies range in size from a couple of millimeters to the size of the boundary layer.
Dissipation
Conversion of turbulence into heat by molecular viscosity
Inertial cascade
Decrease in eddy size from large eddy to small eddy to zero
due to dissipation
Turbulence Models
Kolmogorov scale (8.15)
3 1 4
k a
d
Reynolds-averaged models
Resolution greater than a few hundred meters
Do not resolve large or small eddies
u u zr u z0,m
z zr z0,m
K m,zx K m,zy C D v h zr zr z0,m
Kinematic Vertical Energy Flux
Bulk aerodynamic formulae (8.21)
wv s CH vh zr v zr v z0,h
K-theory (8.23)
v
w v K h,zz
s z
Potential virtual temperature gradient (8.24)
v v zr v z0,h
z zr z0,h
K h,zz CH v h zr zr z0,h
Vertical Turbulent Moisture Flux
Bulk aero. kinematic vertical turbulent moisture flux (8.26)
wv s u**
Potential Temperature Scale
Dimensionless temperature gradient (8.34)
h z v
k * z
Parameterization of * (8.35)
Pr z z
0 stable
t h L L
z 1 2 z
h Prt 1 h 0 unstable
L L
z
Prt 0 neutral
L
Potential Temperature Scale
h
z v *
k v zr v z0,h
zr dz
* z
k
z 0,h h z
Integral of Dimensionless Temp. Grad.
Integral of dimensionless temperature gradient (8.38)
zr dz
z0, h
h
z
h
Prt ln z
zr
L
zr z0,h
z
L
0 stable
0,h
12 z0,h 1 2
z
1 h r 1 1 h
1
L L z
Prt ln 12 ln 12 0 unstable
zr z0,h L
1 h 1 1 h
1
L L
zr z
Prt ln z 0 neutral
0,h L
Equations to Solve Simultaneously
Solution requires iteration
k v h zr 3
u* v
2
u* v
u* z L
r
z 0,m m z
dz
kg w v
s
kg*
*
k v zr v z0,h
zr dz
z 0,h h z
Noniterative Parameterization
Friction wind speed (8.40)
k v h zr
u* Gm
ln zr z0,m
Potential temperature scale (8.40)
*
k 2 vh zr v z r v z0,h
Gh
u* Prt ln zr z0,m
2
Scale Parameterization
Potential temperature scale (8.41)
9.4Rib
Gm 1 Rib 0
1
70k
2
Rib zr z0,m
0.5
ln 2 zr z0,m
9.4Rib
Gh 1 Rib 0
Rib zr z0,m
2 0.5
50k
1
ln2 zr z0,m
1
Gm ,Gh Rib 0
1 4.7Rib 2
Bulk Richardson Number
Ratio of buoyancy to mechanical shear (8.39)
zr z0,m 2
g v zr v z0,h
Rib
v z0,h u zr v zr zr z0,h
2 2
Gradient Richardson Number
g v (8.42)
v z
Ri g 2 2
u v
z z
Table 8.2. Vertical air flow characteristics for different Rib or Rig
Value of Type of Level of Turbulence Level of
Rib or Rig Flow Due to Buoyancy Turbulence
Due to Shear
u* *
---> K h,zz = 0.41 m2 s-1 ---> K m,zx K h,zz = 0.95
v z
Eddy Diff. Coef. for Mom. Similarity
Dimensionless wind shear (8.28)
m z vh
k u* z
Wind shear (8.46)
2
u*
K m,zx
vh zr
zr z0,m
wv s u**
Surface vertical turbulent sensible heat flux (8.53)
H f a c p,d w v a c p,d u* *
s
Energy, Moisture Fluxes from Similarity
Vertical kinematic water vapor flux (8.49)
q*
k q v zr q v z0,v
z r dz
z h
0,v z
Logarithmic Wind Profile
Dimensionless wind shear (8.28)
m z vh
k u* z
Rewrite (8.57)
v h z
z
u*
kz
m
u*
kz
1 1 m
Integrate --> surface layer vertical wind speed profile (8.59)
u* z
vh z ln m
k z0,m
Logarithmic Wind Profile
Influence function for momentum (8.61,2)
z dz
m
z 0,m
1 m
z
m
L z z0,m z
L
0 stable
ln 2
1 m z 1 m z 1 2
2 1 2
1 m z0,m
1 m z0,m
1 1
2 tan m z 2 tan m z0,m
1 1 z
L
0 unstable
0 z
0 neutral
L
Logarithmic Wind Profile
Neutral conditions --> logarithmic wind profile (8.64)
u* z
vh z ln
k z0,m
Height above surface (m)
6
z 0, m =1.0 m z 0, m =0.1 m
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Fig. 8.3
-1
Wind speed (m s )
Potential Virtual Temperature Profile
Dimensionless potential temperature gradient (8.34)
h z v
k * z
Rewrite (8.58)
v * *
z
kz
h
kz
1 1 h
Integrate --> potential virtual temperature profile (8.60)
* z
v z v z0,h Prt ln
k
h
z0,h
Potential Virtual Temperature Profile
Influence function for energy (8.61,3)
z dz
h
z0 ,h
1 h
z
1 h
z z0,h z
0 stable
Prt L L
1 h z1 z
2ln 0 unstable
1 h z0,h
1 L
0 z
0 neutral
L
Vertical Profiles in a Canopy
Relationship among dc, hc, and z0,m
z0,mz
ln ln
Top of canopy
ln h c
ln(d c +z 0,m)
ln d c
0
0 |vh| Fig. 8.4
Vertical Profiles in a Canopy
Momentum (8.66)
u* z d z d
vh z ln c
m
c
k z
0,m L
Potential virtual temperature (8.67)
* z d c z dc
v z v dc z0,h Prt ln
k
h
L
z0,h
Specific humidity (8.68)
z d
q v z q v d c z0,v Prt
q*
k
ln
c
h
z d
c
L
z0,v
Local v. Nonlocal Closure Above Surface
Local closure turbulence scheme
Mixes momentum, energy, chemicals between adjacent layers.
Hybrid
E-
E-d
u 2 v 2 Ri Ri
2 c b
K m,zx K m,zy e
z z Ric
Mixing Length (8.71)
kz
e
1 kz m
For energy
K m SM e 2E K h Sh e 2E
E-d TKE
Prognostic equation for dissipation rate (8.88)
d K m d d 2d
c 1 Ps Pb c 2
t z z E E
E32
34
e c
d
Heat Conduction Equation
Heat conduction equation (8.91)
Ts 1 Ts
s
t g cG z z
Thermal conductivity of soil-water-air mixture (8.92)
log10 p 2.7
s max418e , 0.172
Moisture potential
Potential energy required to extract water from capillary and
adhesive forces in the soil (8.93)
w g,s b
p p,s
w
g
Heat Conduction Equation
Density x specific heat of soil-water-air mixture (8.94)
g cG 1 w g,s s c S w g wc W
b 3
p bK g,s p,s w g bK g,s p,s w g b2
Dg K g
w
w g wg w g,s w g,s g,s
Heat Conduction Equation
Rate of change of ground surface temperature (8.98)
Ts 1 Ts
s Fn,g H f Le E f
t g cG z z
F n,g fs Fs Fi s BTg4
Le E f fs Le
a
Ra
g q v zr qv,s Tg fv Le
a
Rf
g q af q v,s Tg
Hv Le Ed Le Et
Transpiration (8.118)
a 1 d
Et LT
R f Rst
q af q v,s T f
q af q v,s T f ,t,n dT
T f ,t,n
T f ,t,n1
v 2 s v s 3 a c p,d
4
T
v B f ,t,n 1.1LT
v s v s R f P f
L L
d a 1 d v,s f ,t,n
dq
T
e T a R R R dT
f f st
Temperature of Vegetated Soil
a c p,d Tg,t,n1
fs p zr (8.125)
Ra Pg
a c p,d Taf,t Tg,t,n1
fv
R f f P Pg
L
fs
a
Ra
e
g qv zr q v,s Tg,t,n1
v
Rf
L
f a e q q
g af
v,s Tg,t,n1
4
fs Fs Fi B s Tg,t,n1
s,1
1
D T1,t Tg,t,n1
Tg,t,n Tg,t,n1 a c p,d a c p,d 3 s,1
fs R P fv R P 4 s B Tg,t,n1 D
a g f g 1
Modeled/Measured Temperatures
Fig. 8.5
Modeled/Measured Temperatures
Fig. 8.5
Modeled/Measured Temperatures
50
Temperature (
C)
Measured
30
20
10
0
0 24 48 72 96
Hour after first midnight
Fig. 8.5
Road Temperature
(8.128)
a c p,d Tg,t,n1
p zr
Ra Pg
a Le
Ra
d q v zr q v,s Tg,t,n1
4
F
s Fi T
B as g,t,n1
as T
D1
1,c,t Tg,t,n1
Tg,t,n Tg,t,n1 c
a p,d 3 as
4 as B Tg,t,n1
Ra Pg D1
Temperatures of Soils and Surfaces
Fig. 8.5
Modeled/Measured Temperatures
50
Temperature (
C)
Measured
30
20
10
0
0 24 48 72 96
Hour after first midnight
Fig. 8.5
Snow Depth
Ds,t Ds,t h hPs (8.129)
fs
q z q
v r
v,s min Tg,t , Ts,m a c p,d Ts,m
Ra
fs p zr
a
h R a Pg
sn
fv
q af q v,s min Tg,t , Ts,m
a c p,d Taf ,t Ts,m
Rf fv R f P P
f g
a Ls
fs
Ra
q v zr q v,s Ts,m
fv
a Ls
R f
q af q v,s Ts,m
sn
fs Fs Fi B sn Ts,m 4
D1
T1,t Ts,m
h
sn Lm
Water Temperature
(8.130)
R
a
a L s q z q
v r T
v,s g,t,n1
4
Fs Fi B i Tg,t,n1
i
Di,t h
Ti, f Tg,t,n1
Tg,t,n Tg,t,n1 c
a p,d 3 i
4 i Tg,t,n1
Ra Pg Di,t h
Temperature of Snow Over Sea Ice
Tg,t,n Tg,t,n1 (8.134)
c
a p,d Tg,t,n1
p zr
Ra Pg
a Ls
Ra
q v zr q v,s Tg,t,n 1
4
Fs Fi B snTg,t,n 1
sn i
Ti, f Tg,t,n1
sn Di,t h i Ds,t h
a c p,d 3 sn i
4 sn Tg,t,n1
Ra Pg sn Di,t h i Ds,t h