BUS 221- FUNDAMENTALS OF

BUSINESS RESEARCH

Mwenyasi, Robert J.G.

Msc PSCM (T), CPSP (T), ADMM (T)
Mzumbe University – Mbeya Campus College

Email: mwenyasi@yahoo.com
Mobile: 0714 107173/0762 401765.
 Group Assignment

Identify and explain various

problems encountered by
researchers in Tanzania
and suggest ways to solve
such problems.

Submission Date: 22/06/2020

 Topic One: Introduction to
Business Research
The Role of Business Research

Categories and Types of Research

Formulating research topic and research

problem

Research Questions and Research

Objectives
 The Meaning of Business
Research
Research in common manner of speaking
refers to a search for knowledge. One can
also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic (Kothari, 2004). In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation. It
is also regarded as a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge. It is a systematic
search for knowledge that is helpful in
problem solving (Ndunguru, 2007).
 The Meaning of Business
Research
Furthermore, research can be understood as a
systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
Some people consider research as a
movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a journey of discovery. A
research activity comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulated hypothesis
(Ndunguru,2007).
 Objectives of Research
According to Kothari (2004), the purpose of
research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to
find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet. Though
each research study has its own specific
purpose, it can be thought that research
objectives fall into a number of the following
broad groups: -
 Objectives of Research
i. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it (studies with this object in view
are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);
ii. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies);
iii.To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
iv.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
 The Role of Business Research
i. The role of research in several fields of applied
economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in
modern times. The increasingly complex nature
of business and government has focused
attention on the use of research in solving
Operational Problems.
ii. Research provides the basis for nearly all
government policies in the economic system as
well as resource allocation. For instance,
government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis
of the needs and desires of the people and on
the availability of revenues to meet these needs.
 The Role of Business Research
iii. Research has its special significance in
solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations
research and market research, along
with motivational research, are considered
crucial and their results assist, in more
than one way, in taking business decisions.
iv. Research is equally important for social
scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems.
It provides the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing a few things just for the sake of
knowledge.
 Descriptive vs Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and
fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what
has happened or what is happening. In
analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make
a critical evaluation of the material.
 Applied vs Fundamental
Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organization. The
central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem. Whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of
theories. The central aim of fundamental
research is to find information that has a
broad base of applications and additional
of knowledge.
 Quantitative vs Qualitative
Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality.
For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do
certain things)
 Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual research is that related to
some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other
hand, empirical research relies on
experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
 Research Theme & Research
Topic
Research theme: Broad area of interest
from which a specific and focused
subject matter (a topic) is selected.

An example
Theme: Accounting & finance
Topic: Management of internal Audit

14
 Formulating a Research Topic:
approaches
i. Discussions with peers

ii. Seeking advice from experts -

Consulting knowledgeable people.

iii. Seeking advice from your supervisor

15
 Formulating a Research Topic

iv. Reviewing previous researches

v. Literature review: Reviewing various

sources (soft & hard)

vi. From a theory or a conceptual model,

for instance Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs or Herzberg’s two-factor theory

16
 Formulating a Research Topic
vii. Own (lived) experience, ideas

viii. Sponsor’s suggestion

ix. Reviewing selected hypotheses

x. From research gaps

xi. Drawing from own academic background

17
 Areas of research interest
Intent to examine practices (how things
are managed or how things are carried
out): staff training, managing staff
retention, workers’ compensation,
employees’ participation in decision
making, revenue collection…

18
 Areas of research interest
Perceptions of users or local residents
on the quality of public services. For
instance, NHIF health services;
perceptions on the effectiveness of
finance department or internal audit,

19
 Areas of research interest
Perceptions of local businesses on the
responsiveness of regional business
chambers, perceptions of local residents
on the effectiveness of ward land tribunals

20
 Areas of research interest
Effects or outcome of a particular
decision or policy, such as exemption
and waivers on heath care, or capitation
grants for public schools.

Factors determining a particular

experience or behaviour, such as
observance of financial regulations.
21
 Areas of research interest
Outcomes of a particular programme or
strategy, such as the warehouse receipts
programme,

Contribution of a particular programme or

strategy e.g. microfinance on poverty
alleviation

22
 Areas of research interest
Causes of a particular experience: mass
failure in primary schools, unemployment in
a particular district,

Effectiveness of a particular programme,

such as the High Education Loan Board,

Limitations of a particular policy or process

such as the public procurement Act
23
 Considerations when formulating
a research topic
i. Clarity, avoiding ambiguity of the topic
ii. Relevance to public and organizational
problems (Usefulness, Purposefulness)
iii. Potential to contribute to knowledge
generation
iv. Not duplicating existing research
v. Availability of data
vi. Researchability: Avoid complex
vii. Avoid controversial, quarrelsome or
potentially troublesome or “hot” or “sensitive
topics 24
 Considerations when formulating
a research topic
viii. Ethical consideration on the topic:
Appropriateness to the norms,
customs, culture and moral traditions
of the study area and the respondents

ix. Sufficient Knowledge of the topic

x. Researcher’s interest
25
Topic Two: Reviewing Literature
i. Literature Review (Theoretical and
Empirical and conceptual framework)

ii. Research concepts and variable

iii. Referencing

iv. Measurement of scales

 Literature Review
Literature review a survey books, scholarly
articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and
by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation
to the research problem being investigated.
Literature reviews are designed to provide an
overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to
demonstrate to your readers how your research
fits within a larger field of study.
 The purposes of literature review
i. To provide foundation of knowledge on topic
ii. To identify areas of prior scholarship to
prevent duplication and give credit to other
researchers
iii. To identify inconsistencies: gaps in research,
conflicts in previous studies, open questions
left from other research
iv. To identify need for additional research
(justifying your research)
v. To identify the relationship of works in context
of its contribution to the topic and to other
works
vi. To place your own research within the context
of existing literature.
 Categories of literature review

i. Conceptual Literature Review

ii. Theoretical Literature Review

iii.Empirical Literature Review

 Conceptual Literature Review
Conceptual literature review looks at the
ways that the key concepts in the topic
have been defined over time and
highlights changes in perceptions
concerning what each concept means.
The review should be concise and straight
to the point.
 Theoretical Literature Review

Theoretical literature review examines the

various theories that exist in relation to the
topic being considered. The review of
each theory should consider the
fundamental assumptions, the main
propositions of the theory and the main
criticisms. Thus, the review should be
critical and it should highlight how the
theories evolve over time.
 Empirical Literature Review
Empirical literature review details previous
empirical studies (note: not theoretical
analysis) that have been done on the topic
by other researchers and the findings that
emerged. Here, the key issues are the
problem focused upon, the methodology
used and the key findings and
conclusions.
 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is an analytical
tool with several variations and contexts. It
can be applied in different categories of
work where an overall picture is needed. It
is used to make conceptual distinctions and
organize ideas. Strong conceptual
frameworks capture something real and do
this in a way that is easy to remember and
apply.
 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is a structure which
the researcher believes can best explain the
natural progression of the phenomenon to
be studied. It is linked with the concepts,
empirical research and important theories
used in promoting and systemizing the
knowledge espoused by the researcher.
 Conceptual Framework
Independent Dependent
Variables Variable

Stress
Depression
Sleep
Disorders
 Research concepts
Respondents: the people from which
the researcher collects data or
information using a questionnaire or
interview.

Interviewees: Are the people (that

are) interviewed by the researcher or
interviewer
36
 Research concepts
Study Population: It is a well-defined
collection of individuals or objects which
are the main focus of study. Usually, such
objects or individuals have similar or
common binding characteristics or traits.

It is a group of people or things with some

common characteristics and which are the
focus of the study. Examples are local
government officials, councilors, business
operators, employees of TBL…
37
 Research Concepts
Target population: Is a part of
population with characteristics of
interests to the researcher, e.g.
mothers with more then two
children; the university students with
government sponsorship, employees
with more that 3 years of work
experience
38
 Research Concepts
Area of Study: The place where the
study is conducted

Hypothesis: this is an observation

statement that is derived from theory and/or
practice to provide logical and tentative
solution to a research question. There is Null
hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
39
 Research Variables
i. Variable: a concept which can take on different
quantitative values is called a variable. As such
the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables.

ii. Dependent and Independent Variables: a

dependent variable is the one whose changes
result from outside causes (a variable that is
influenced by other variables). Independent
variables are the ones, which cause changes
or pressurize others to change.
 Referencing: American
Psychological Association (APA)

The APA referencing style is an "author-

date" style, so the citation in the text
consists of the author(s) and the year of
publication given wholly or partly in round
brackets. Use only the surname of the
author(s) followed by a comma and the
year of publication.
 In-Text Citation
In-text citations are citations within the
main body of the text and refer to a direct
quote or paraphrase. They correspond to
a reference in the main reference list.
These citations include the surname of
the author and date of publication only.
Using an example of an author James
Msomi, this takes the form:
Msomi (2019) states… Or …(Msomi,
2019)
 In-Text Citation
For a direct quote, the citation must follow
the quote directly and contain a page
number after the date, for example
(Msomi, 2017, p.104).

For a paraphrased text, the page number

is not needed.
 Citing two authors
The surname of both authors is stated
with either ‘and’ or an ampersand (&)
between. For example: Msomi and Msumi
(2017) state… Or …(Msomi & Msumi,
2017).
 Citing Three, Four or Five
Authors
For the first cite, all surnames should be
listed: for example:
Msomi, Msumi, and Tambala (2017)
state… Or …(Msomi, Msumi, & Tambala,
2017). Further cites can be shortened to
the first author’s name followed by et al:
Msomi et al (2017) state… Or …(Msumi
et al, 2017).
 Citing Six or More Authors
Only the first author’s surname should be
stated followed by et al, see in the
previous example.
 Citing a Secondary Source
In this situation the original author and
date should be stated first followed by ‘as
cited in’ followed by the author and date
of the secondary source. For example:
Lode (1980) as cited in Msomi (2017) Or
(Lode, 1980, as cited in Msomi, 2017)
How to Cite a Book (Title, not
chapter) in APA Format
 Reference list vs Bibliography
A reference list, lists only the sources you refer to
in your writing.
The purpose of the reference list is to allow your
sources to be found by your reader.  It also gives
credit to authors you have consulted for their
ideas.  All references cited in the text must appear
in the reference list.
 
A bibliography is different from a reference list as
it lists all the sources used during your research
and background reading, not just the ones you
refer to in your writing.
 Measurement Scales
A measurement scale is used to qualify or
quantify data variables in statistics. It
determines the kind of techniques to be
used for statistical analysis.

There are four measurement scales,

namely; nominal scale, ordinal scale,
interval scale, and ratio scale.
 Measurement Scales
Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

ratio
 Topic Three: Research Methods

Research design

Population, Sample and Sampling

Techniques/ methods

Data, Data collection techniques/methods

The meaning of research design
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance
to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. It is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the plan for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data. A
research designing is concerned with how to
realize and/or accomplish the research
aspirations – it is about moving from a
research desk to a research field.
 Research Design
A research design addresses the following
questions: -
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being made?
iii.Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What periods of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will be
used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
 The need for Research Design
Research design is needed because it facilitates
the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient
as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a plan (or what is
commonly called the map of the house, the
drawing) well thought out and prepared by an
expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data collection and
analysis for our research project.
 Kinds of research design
•Survey Design

•Case study Design

•Experimental Design
 Survey Design
In a survey design, information is collected from a
relatively large number of cases or units of inquiry
under investigation. In other words large number of
people, groups, relationships, organizations, or
communities is studied by gathering information on
few variables. The aim is to investigate the
selected characteristics (variables) of the entire
universe or population. To make sure that the
sample of cases is representative, random
sampling of the cases should be adopted in which
any combination of the unit of inquiry has equal
chance of being selected.
 Descriptive survey design
The descriptive survey design focuses on
describing particular characteristics of a
specific population of subjects, at point in
time or at varying times for comparative
purposes. In practice descriptive survey
design is used in marketing – ascertain
attitudes to new products, human resources
– assessing job satisfaction, motivation,
employees’ grievances and production
management – assessing reaction to
possible changes in working arrangements.
 Analytical survey design
The analytical survey design emphasizes on
the logic of deductive orientations, reliability
in data collection, and statistical rather than
physical control of extraneous variables. It
also focuses on generation. It enables the
researcher to develop theory inductively that
can be tested using structured questionnaire
as part of the study and enables the
researcher to test theory deductively by
elucidating cause – effect relationship among
a set of phenomena.
 Case study Design
A case is a unit under investigation. It may be an
individual person, particular group of persons,
things, a set of relationships, organizations or a
community. The aim of a case study is to
investigate the unit across a variety of
characteristics. Thus, a case study is
characterized by a thorough study of a unit over a
range of variables and the validity of the findings in
such studies is relevant to the case study under
investigation and that generalization is limited.
However, case study design is flexible in terms of
data collection methods and analysis. It is an
intensive study of the case.
 Benefits of Case Study Design
i. Case study design enables the researcher to
understand fully the behaviour pattern of the unit
under investigation.
ii. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along
with the data which may be helpful in testing
them.
iii.The method facilitates intensive study of social
units which is generally not possible in other
designs.
iv.Case study method has proved beneficial in
determining the nature of units to be studied
along with the nature of the universe
 Benefits of Case Study Design
v. Case study design enhances the experience of
the researcher and this in turn increases his
analyzing ability and skills.
vi.Case studies allow a lot of detail to be collected
that would not normally be easily obtained by
other research designs. The data collected is
normally a lot richer and of greater depth than
can be found through other experimental
designs.
vii.Within the case study, scientific experiments
can be conducted.
 Experimental Design
This type of design aims at assessing the effect of
an experimental variable (treatment condition or
stimulus) on an experimental group of objects
(persons, groups of people, relationships,
organizations, or communities). It is an attempt by
the researcher to maintain control over all factors
that may affect the result of an experiment. In
doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or
predict what may occur. Experimental designs are
used in natural sciences because laboratory
conditions can be manipulated relatively easily.
This design has three elements namely:
experimental variable, experimental group and the
control group.
 Experimental Design
The experimental variable is that treatment
condition to which the experimental group is
exposed to see what happens to it as a result. The
experimental group is the set of experimental
objects, group of persons, relationships,
organizations, or group of communities that are
exposed to the experimental variable in order to
assess the effect of the variable on the group. The
control group is the set of experimental objects,
group of persons, relationships, organizations, or
group of communities with the same and similar
characteristics to the experimental group, but it is
not exposed to the experimental variable.
 Population
All elements, individuals, or units that meet
the selection criteria for a group to be
studied, and from which a representative
sample is taken for detailed examination.
The total of all populations is called a
universe. It is a complete set of elements
(persons or objects) that possess some
common characteristics defined by the
sampling criteria established by the
researcher. Population is composed of two
groups namely: target population and the
accessible population.
 Sample
A sample in research refers to a group of
people or things that are taken from a larger
whole or group and studied, tested, or
questioned to get information. It is the
representative of the population.
Sampling
Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is also known as ‘random
sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling
design, every item of the universe has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a
game of chance method in which individual units are
picked up from the whole group not deliberately but
by some mechanical process. Random sampling
from a finite population refers to that method of
sample selection which gives each possible sample
combination an equal probability of being picked up
and each item in the entire population to have an
equal chance of being included in the sample. This is
simple random sampling.
 Systematic random sampling
In some instances, the most practical way of
sampling is to select every ith item on a list.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of randomness is introduced
into this kind of sampling by using random numbers
to pick up the unit with which to start. For instance, if
a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would
be selected randomly from the first twenty-five and
thereafter every 25th item would automatically be
included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling
only the first unit is selected randomly and the
remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals.
 Stratified Sampling
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified
sampling technique is generally applied in order to
obtain a representative sample. Under stratified
sampling the population is divided into several sub-
populations that are individually more homogeneous
than the total population (the different sub-
populations are called ‘strata’) and then items from
each stratum are select to constitute a sample.
Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the
total population, we are able to get more precise
estimates for each stratum and by estimating more
accurately each of the component parts, we get a
better estimate of the whole.
 Stratified Sampling
In a way, stratified sampling results in more
reliable and detailed information. However,
the following three questions are highly
relevant in the context of stratified
sampling:
i.How to form strata?
ii.How should items be selected from each
stratum?
iii.How many items be selected from each
stratum or how to allocate the sample size
of each stratum?
 Area Sampling
If clusters happen to be some geographic
subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling
is better known as area sampling. In other
words, cluster designs, where the primary
sampling unit represents a cluster of units
based on geographic area, are
distinguished as area sampling.
 Cluster Sampling
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a
convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to
divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping
areas and then to randomly select a number of these
smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate
sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these
small areas or clusters. Suppose we want to estimate
the proportion of machine parts in an inventory which are
defective. Also assume that there are 20000 machine
parts in the inventory at a given point of time, stored in
400 cases of 50 each. Now using a cluster sampling,
one would consider the 400 cases as clusters and
randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the machine
parts in each randomly selected case. It is oftenly used
in marketing research.
 Multi-stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a further development of
the principle of cluster sampling. Suppose we
want to investigate the working efficiency of
nationalized banks in Tanzania and we want to
take a sample of few banks for this purpose. The
first stage is to select large primary sampling unit
such as states in a country. Then we may select
certain districts and interview all banks in the
chosen districts. This would represent a two-stage
sampling design with the ultimate sampling units
being clusters of districts.
 Non-probability sampling
techniques
Non-probability sampling is that sampling
procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the
population has a chance of being included in
the sample. Non-probability sampling is also
known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgement
sampling. In this type of sampling, items for
the sample are selected deliberately by the
researcher; his choice concerning the items
remains supreme.
 Quota sampling
Quota sampling is entirely non-random and
is normally used for interview surveys. It is
based on the premise that your sample will
represent the population as the variability in
your sample because various quota
variables is the same as that in the
population. Quota sampling is therefore a
type of stratified sample in which selection of
cases within strata is entirely non-random
 Quota sampling
To select a quota sample you:
i.Divide the population into specific groups.
ii.Calculate a quota for each group based on
relevant and available data.
iii.Give each interviewer an ‘assignment’,
which states the number of cases in each
quota from which they must collect data.
iv.Combine the data collected by
interviewers to provide the full sample.
 Purposive sampling
Purposive or judgemental sampling enables
you to use your judgement to select cases that
will best enable you to answer your research
question(s) and to meet your objectives. This
form of sample is often used when working
with very small samples such as in case study
research and when you wish to select cases
that are particularly informative. The logic on
which you base your strategy for selecting
cases for a purposive sample should be
dependent on your research question(s) and
objectives.
 Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is commonly used when it
is difficult to identify members of the desired
population, for example people who are
working while claiming unemployment
benefit. The researcher therefore, need to:
i. Make contact with one or two cases in the
population.
ii.Ask these cases to identify further cases.
iii.Ask these new cases to identify further new
cases (and so on).
iv.Stop when either no new cases are given
or the sample is as large as is manageable.
 Snowball sampling
The main problem is making initial contact.
Once you have done this, these cases
identify further members of the population,
who then identify further members, and so
the sample snowballs. For such samples
the problems of bias are massive, as
respondents are most likely to identify other
potential respondents who are similar to
themselves, resulting in a homogeneous
sample.
 Self-selection sampling
Self-selection sampling occurs when you
allow each case, usually individuals, to
identify their desire to take part in the
research. You therefore:

i.Publicize your need for cases, either by

advertising through appropriate media or by
asking them to take part.

ii.Collect data from those who respond.

 Self-selection sampling
Publicity for convenience samples can take
many forms. These include articles and
advertisements in magazines that the
population are likely to read, postings on
appropriate Internet newsgroups and
discussion groups, websites as well as
letters or emails of invitation to colleagues
and friends. Cases that self-select often do
so because of their feelings or opinions
about the research question(s) or stated
objectives.
 Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling (or haphazard
sampling) involves selecting haphazardly those
cases that are easiest to obtain for your
sample, such as the person interviewed at
random in a shopping centre for a television
programme or the book about entrepreneurship
you find at the airport. The sample selection
process is continued until your required sample
size has been reached. Although this technique
of sampling is used widely, it is prone to bias
and influences that are beyond your control, as
the cases appear in the sample only because
of the ease of obtaining them.
 Calculating the sample sizes

Sample sizes for different sizes of

population at a 95 confidence level
(Assuming data are collected from all cases
in the sample) are shown in the following
table in the next slide.
 Margin error
Population 5% 3% 2% 1%
50 44 48 49 50
100 79 91 96 99
150 108 132 144 148
200 132 168 185 196
250 151 203 226 244
300 168 234 267 291
400 196 291 343 384
500 217 340 414 475
750 254 440 571 696
1000 278 516 706 906
2000 322 696 1091 1655
5000 357 879 1622 3288
10000 370 964 1936 4899
100000 383 1056 2345 8762
1000000 384 1066 2395 9513
10000000 384 1067 2400 9595
 Yamane (1967), formula for
sample size
N
n = [1+N (e)2]
Where:

n : Represents the sample size

N : Represents the population of the
study
e : Estimated Margin error for the
sample
 Data Collection
Techniques/methods
Collection of Primary Data: -
•Questionnaire
•Interview
•Observation

Collection of Secondary Data

•Documentary Review/Sources
 Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering
and measuring information on targeted
variables in an established systematic
fashion, which then enables one to answer
relevant questions and evaluate outcomes.
The data collection component of research
is common to all fields of study including
physical and social sciences, humanities
and business. The task of data collection
begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/ plan chacked
out and well prepared.
 Primary Data collection methods
Questionnaire:
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument
consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents. Questionnaires
have advantages over some other types of
surveys in that they are cheap, do not require
as much effort from the questioner as verbal or
telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that make it simple to
compile data that is collected
 Construction of questionnaire
The following issues should be considered when
designing a questionnaire: focus, phraseology, and
the form of response. A well focused questionnaire
is the one whose questions asked cover
adequately and sufficient all various aspects of the
research problem. Questionnaire phraseology is
about the intelligibility of the questions to the
respondents. It is all about clarity, unambiguous,
understandable questions, free from jargon or
difficult terminologies. Thus the criteria of
questionnaire design should be accuracy and
relevance. Responses should be presented in
such a way that is suitable for statistical analysis.
 Construction of questionnaire
Screens are used as a screening method to find out
early whether or not someone should complete the
questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help
capture interest in the questionnaire. Transition
questions are used to make different areas flow well
together. Skips include questions similar to "If yes,
then answer question 3. If no, then continue to
question 5." Difficult questions are towards the end
because the respondent is in "response mode” and so
they are more willing to answer more difficult
questions. Classification, or demographic question
should be at the end because typically they can feel
like personal questions which will make respondents
uncomfortable and not willing to finish the
questionnaire.
 Preliminary decisions in
questionnaire designing
i. Decide the information required
ii. Define the target respondents
iii.Choose the methods of reaching your
target respondents
iv.Decide on question contents
v.Develop the question wording
vi.Put the questions in meaningful order and
format
vii.Check the length of the questionnaire
viii.Pre-test the questionnaire
 Other considerations for
developing questionnaire
i. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the
research objectives/questions.
ii. It should obtain the most complete and accurate
information possible.
iii.A well-designed questionnaire should make it
easy for respondents to give the necessary
information and for the interviewer to record the
answer for analysis and interpretation.
iv.Use plain language and be brief, avoid jargons .
v. Make sure your questionnaire looks professional.
vi.Put the most important questions at the beginning
of your questionnaire
 Questionnaire Administration
Normally a questionnaire is sent to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions
and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire
consists of a number of questions printed or typed
in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The
questionnaire is sent to respondents who are
expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space meant for the
purpose in the questionnaire itself. The
respondents have to answer the questions on their
own. This is to make sure that the data obtained
represents the typical views of the respondents.
 Merits of using questionnaire
i. There is low cost even when the universe is large
and is widely spread geographically.
ii. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers
are in respondents’ own words.
iii.Respondents have adequate time to give well
thought out answers.
iv.Respondents, who are not easily approachable,
can also be reached conveniently.
v. Large samples can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
 Demerits of using questionnaire
i. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires;
bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
ii. It can be used only when respondents are educated
and cooperating.
iii.The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is
sent.
iv.There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have
been dispatched.
v. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
vi.It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are
truly representative.
vii.This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Interviews
An interview is a conversation where questions are
asked and answers are given. In the common
manner of speaking, it refers to a one-on-one
conversation with one person acting in the role of
the interviewer and the other in the role of the
interviewee or simply the respondent. Questions are
asked, and answers are given, with participants
taking turns talking. Interviews usually involve a
transfer of information from interviewee to
interviewer, which is usually the primary purpose of
the interview, although information transfers happen
in both directions simultaneously. An interview
involves oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
 Structured interviews
Characteristics
i.The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of
questions. 
ii.The questions are created prior to the interview, and
often have a limited set of response categories. 
iii.There is generally little room for variation in responses
and there are few open-ended questions included in the
interview guide.
iv.Questioning is standardized and the ordering and
phrasing of the questions are kept consistent from
interviewee to interviewee. 
v.The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and
friendly, but does not insert his or her opinion in the
interview.
vi.Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured
interview.
 Semi-structured interviews
Characteristics

i.The interviewer and respondents engage in a

formal interview. 
ii.The interviewer develops and uses an
'interview guide.' This is a list of questions and
topics that need to be covered during the
conversation, usually in a particular order. 
iii.The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to
follow topical course in the conversation that
may stray from the guide when he or she feels
this is appropriate. 
 Unstructured interviews
Characteristics

i. The interviewer and respondents engage in a

formal interview in that they have a scheduled time
to sit and speak with each other and both parties
recognize this to be an interview. 
ii. The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding
the focus and goal of the interview.  This guides the
discussion. 
iii. There is not a structured interview guide.  Instead,
the interviewer builds rapport with respondents,
getting respondents to open-up and express
themselves in their own way. 
iv. Questions tend to be open-ended and express little
control over informants' responses. 
 Informal Interviewing
Characteristics

i.The interviewer talks with people in the field

informally, without use of a structured interview guide
of any kind. 
ii.The researcher tries to remember his or her
conversations with informants, and uses jottings or
brief notes taken in the field to help in the recall and
writing of notes from experiences in the field. 
iii.Informal interviewing goes hand-in-hand with
participant observation. 
iv.While in the field as an observer, informal interviews
are casual conversations one might have with the
people the researcher is observing.
 Focused Interview
Focused interview is meant to focus attention
on the given experience of the respondent and
its effects. Under it the interviewer has the
freedom to decide the manner and sequence in
which the questions would be asked and has
also the freedom to explore reasons and
motives. The main task of the interviewer in
case of a focused interview is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues with which
he seeks conversance. Such interviews are
used generally in the development of
hypotheses and constitute a major type of
unstructured interviews.
 Direct Observation or
Participant Observation
This method of date collection refers to the
circumstance of being in or around an
ongoing setting and recording facts as they
are observed, listened or experienced. The
researcher in this case actually works or
interacts with the study setting. For example,
a researcher who is studying customs of a
particular tribe may collect data while living in
a village of the tribe. Or consider also
students field research projects. This method
is also known as participant observation.
 Direct Observation
Advantages

i. Very direct method for collecting data or

information – best for the study of human
behavior.
ii. Data collected is very accurate in nature
and also very reliable.
iii.Improves precision of the research results.
iv.Problem of depending on respondents is
decreased.
v.Helps in understanding the verbal response
more efficiently.
 Direct Observation
Advantages Cont…

vi.By using good and modern gadgets –

observations can be made continuously
and also for a larger duration of time
period.
vii.Observation is less demanding in nature,
which makes it less bias in working
abilities.
viii.By observation, one can identify a
problem by making an in depth analysis of
the problems.
 Direct Observation
Disadvantages

i.Problems of the past cannot be studied by means

of observation.
ii.Having no other option one has to depend on the
documents available.
iii.Observations like the controlled observations
require some especial instruments or tools for
effective working, which are very much costly.
iv.One cannot study opinions by this means.
v.Attitudes cannot be studied with the help of
observations.
 Direct Observation
Disadvantages Cont…

vi.Sampling cannot be brought into use.

vii. Observation involves a lot of time as one has to
wait for an event to happen, to study that particular
event in order to record necessary information.
viii.The actual presence of the observer himself Vis
a Vis the event to occur is almost unknown, which
acts as a major disadvantage of observation.
ix.Complete answer to any problem or any issue
cannot be obtained by observation alone.
 Non-participant Observation
Non-participant Observation involves observing
participants without actively participating. This
option is used to understand a phenomenon by
entering the community or social system
involved, while staying separate from the
activities being observed. The observer
observes the group passively from a distance
without participating in the group activities. Here
the observer does not try to influence them or
take part in the group activities.
 Non-participant observation

Objectivity Command
and neutrality respect and
co-operation
Advantages
Freedom
from group Careful analysis
behaviour

More willingness
of the respondents
 Non-participant observation
Subjectivity:
No doubt Inadequate
clearing observation

Disadvantages
Inconvenience
Unnatural
to the
and formal
respondents
information
 Secondary Data collection
method
Documentary Sources
This is also termed as documentary review
or documentation method, in which data is
gathered from secondary sources.
Documentary sources of data play an
important role in disseminating knowledge
in all disciplines. The documentary
sources of data for research purposes
include published books, manuscripts,
journals, research reports, newspapers
and other unpublished accurate works.
 Documentary Sources
The documentary sources can be distinguished
between private and public. Typically private
documents are less easily accessible than public
documents. As a result studies that depend on
private source of information are likely to pose
problems that are associated with the data
quality. In Tanzania documentary or secondary
data are categorized as: -
The census records and reports
House hold budget survey
Archival records
Private records of individuals, companies and
other organizations.
 The uses of documentary data
i. Allowing comparative studies to be
carried out.
ii. Providing opportunity for research
replication.
iii.Permitting longitudinal research
designing.
iv.Permitting improvement of measuring
certain variables.
v.Allowing increased sample size.
vi.Costing considerably cheaper than
primary data.
 Documentary Sources
Advantages

i.Information obtained in existing document(s) is

independently verifiable
ii.The document review process can be done
independently, without need for soliciting extensive
inputs from other sources.
iii.Document review is typically less expensive than
collection the data on ones own.
iv.Documentary review is a good source of
background information.
v.It may bring up other issues not noted by other
means
 Documentary Sources
Disadvantages
i.Information in the documents may represent a
perspective that is not aligned with the need
assessment project.
ii.Data in the documents may not be exactly what
is required the need assessment.
iii.Obtaining and analyzing necessary documents
can be a time consuming
iv.The researcher is not able to control the quality
of the data collected and muse rely on the
information provided in the documents.
v.Information may be inapplicable, disorganized,
unavailable or out of date.
vi.Information may be incomplete or inaccurate.
Topic Four: Data processing and
Analysis
Editing, Coding, classificatio and
Tabulation

Descriptive Analyasis

Chi-square

T-test

Correlation Analysis
 Data Editing
Field work normally produces data containing
mistakes. So editing is the process of checking and
adjusting data for omissions, consistency and
legibility. So the editor’s task is to check for errors
and omissions on questionnaire or other data
collection form. When problems are discovered
there should be adjustments in order to make the
data more complete, consistent and readable. The
editor may have to reconstruct some data. For
example; the respondent may indicate weekly
income instead of monthly income as required in the
questionnaire. The editor should convert the
information accordingly.
 Data Coding
Coding is an analytical process in which data, in
both quantitative form (such as questionnaires
results) or qualitative (such as interview
transcripts) is categorized to facilitate analysis.
Coding means the transformation of data into a
form understandable by computer software. The
classification of information is an important step
in preparation of data for computer processing
with statistical software. It is systematic way in
which extensive data sets are condensed into
smaller analyzable units through the creation of
categories and concepts derived from the data.
 Data Tabulation
Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of
the statistical data in columns or rows. It
involves the orderly and systematic
presentation of numerical data in a form
designed to explain the problem under
consideration. Tabulation helps in drawing
the inference from the statistical figures.
Tabulation prepares the ground for analysis
and interpretation. Tabulation simplifies
complex data, facilitate comparison, gives
identify to the data and reveals pattern
 Topic Five: Research Report
Writing
Research report is a formal statement of
the research process and its results. It
narrates the problem studied, methods
used for studying it, the findings and the
conclusion of the study. Research report is
considered a major component of the
research study because the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been
presented and/or written so that the results
of the study enter the general store of
knowledge. The format of the report is
dependent on specific guideline provided.
 Abstract
The abstract is probably the most important
part of your report because it may be the only
part of your work that some will read. It is a
short summary of the complete content of the
project report. It is a very brief summary of
research problem, question, objective,
significance, methodology, findings and
conclusion. This enables those who are not
sure whether they wish to read the complete
report to make an informed decision. For
those who intend to read the whole report the
abstract prepares them for what is to come.
 Abstract
i. It should be short. Try to keep it to a
maximum of two sides of A4. (Some
universities stipulate a maximum length).
ii. It must be self-contained. Since it may be the
only part of your project report that some
people see, it follows that it must summarize
the complete content of your report.
iii. It must satisfy your reader’s needs. Your
reader must be told about the problem, or
central issue, that the research addressed and
the method adopted to pursue the issue. It
must also contain a brief statement of the
main results and conclusions.
 Abstract
iv.It must convey the same emphasis as the
whole report, with the consequence that
the reader should get, an accurate
impression of the report’s contents from
the abstract.
v. It should be objective, precise and easy to
read. The project report contents page
should give you the outline structure for
the abstract.
 Functions of a Research Report
i. It presents the problem studied, methods and
techniques used for collecting and analyzing
data, findings, conclusions and
recommendations in an organized manner.
ii. It serves as a basic reference materials for
future use in developing research proposals in
the same or related area.
iii. A report serves as a means for judging the
quality of the completed research project.
iv. It is a means of evaluating the researcher’s
ability and competence to do research.
v. It provides factual/base for formulating policies
and strategies relating to the subject matter
studied.
Basic components of a research
report
(a). Preliminary pages

i.Cover Page
ii.Title Page
iii.Certification
iv.Declaration
v.Copyright
vi.Acknowledgement
vii.Dedication
viii.Abbreviations and acronyms
ix.Table of contents
x.List of tables
xi.List of figures
 Basic components of a research
report
(b) Report itself

i.Introduction
ii.Literature Review
iii.Methodology
iv.Result/findings of the study
v.Discussions of the results
vi.Conclusions
vii.Recommendations
viii.Reference list
ix.Appendices
 Ethical considerations
i. Voluntary Participation: people should not be
forced to participate in the research activity.
ii. Informed Consent: prospective research
participants must be fully informed about the
procedures and risk involved and they should give
their consent.
iii.Risk of harm: researchers should not put their
participants in a situation where they might be at
risk of harm (both physically and psychologically).
iv.Confidentiality: there should be a guarantee that
all the information obtained from the study will not
be made available to anyone who is not directly
involved in the study.
v. Permission: permit for entry to the field area should
be sought. Write an application letter to authorities.