Small Hydropower

Mbeya University of Science

and Technology
Electric and Power Engineering
Department
Lecturer: Dr.Ing.-John p. John

1
Hydrologic Cycle

2
Hydropower to Electric Power

Electrical
Potential Energy
Energy
Electricity

Kinetic
Energy

Mechanical
Energy
3
 CONCEPT OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER

 Hydro system makes use of falling water in a stream or river or

storage dam between two points to generate mechanical power
through a turbine which is converted into electrical power through a
generator attached to turbine in a power house.

• Amount of water flow diverted from stream or river or dam called

discharge (q) expressed in litres /sec or cumecs or cusecs and
difference in elevation between two upstream and downstream points
called gross head (h) expressed in feet or metres

• Electricity generated is alternating current (ac) mode and generating

volatge expressed as volts (v) or kilo volts (kv) depending on capacity
of station

4
 CONCEPT OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER

• After flow and gross head between two points measured - hydraulic
power calculated as below

• Power = qxhx9.81 watts; q in liters per second and h gross head in

meters

• In case of micro hydel projects, friction loss taken as 25% of

gross head. Net head (h) = gross head – friction losses. used to
calculate net hydraulic power

• Mechanical power calculated using turbine efficiency. For small

shp - 65%

• Useful electrical power calculated using generator efficiency

-generally 80% for small size generators (induction generators
suitable for direct drive)
5
 COMPONENTS OF A HYDRO POWER PROJECT

• Intake: water from the river/spring/dam/irrigation channel is

diverted from its main course. generally weir used to divert
water through intake into open channel.
•Water conductor system : Leads water from intake to head
of penstock.
•De-silting basin with spillway : small tank designed to desilt
water. Provide spillway - a flow regulator for the channel.
Combined with control gates to provide means of emptying
channel. Spill flow fed back to river
•Forebay tank: at head of penstock. Serves as buffer to control
sudden flow and pressure variations. To be designed to hold
volume of water needed to operate turbine-generator. Trash
rake/wire mesh needed to prevent silt, leaves and other debris.
Often enlarged to form a small reservoir. Useful if the water
available not enough during dry season. A spillway completes the
forebay tank.
6
 COMPONENTS OF A HYDRO POWER PROJECT

•Penstock: pipeline supplying water from forebay to turbine.

Mild steel, upvc and hdpe - most commonly used materials

•Power house: houses turbine – generator with mechanical

control valves and electrical control panels. Switch yard and
connection to distribution system.

•Tail race channel: leads water from turbines(s) back into

stream/river/irrigation channel

•Turbine and generator: hydro power in jet at end of

penstock transmitted to turbine runner - changes to mechanical
power. Runner has blades or buckets. Turbine general name
refers to runner, nozzle and surrounding case. Turbine expected
to produce power under part-flow conditions, also plays an
important role in selection. All turbines have power-speed
characteristic -tend to run most efficiently at a particular speed,
head and flow combination. 7
 COMPONENTS OF A HYDRO POWER PROJECT

• Impulse turbines – high head pelton and turgo. Medium head,

multi-jet pelton, turgo & cross flow. Low head –cross flow
• Reaction turbines – medium head - francis. Low head –
propellar and kaplan
• Generator: electricity generated when turbine drives generator
-most common type of generator produces alternative current and
known as alternator. Regular synchronous generators simplest
option, but in lower ranges of power (<10kw) may be difficult to
source them. In this case, three phase induction motors can be
used in reverse as generators with help of a capacitor bank.
• Governor: ensures that generator is not affected when load on it
changes. Hydraulic, or electronic. Depends on the generator.
• Distribution system: electricity generated supplied to the house
holds through local grids - consists of weather proof aluminum
cables as conductors and locally available wooden poles as electric
posts.
8
Classification of Hydro electric power station.

• We can classify installations by:

• the effective head of water
• the capacity – the rated power output
• the type of turbine used
• the location and type of dam, reservoir, etc

9
Classification of Hydro electric power station.
• Classification on head.
A. High head plant ( < 300 m.)
B. Medium head plant. (60m to 300 m.)
C. Low head plant. ( > 60m.)
• Classification on water condition
A. Flaw of water plant.
B. Storage of water plant.
C. Pump storage water plant.
Classification of Hydro electric power station.
• Classification on operation.
A. Manual plant.
B. Automatic plant.

• Classification on type of load.

A. Base load plant.
B. Peak load plant.
Scale of Hydropower Projects
 Large-hydro
 More than 100 MW feeding into a large electricity grid
 Medium-hydro
 15 - 100 MW usually feeding a grid
 Small-hydro
 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
 Mini-hydro
 Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW
 Either stand alone schemes or more often feeding into the grid
 Micro-hydro
 From 5kW up to 100 kW
 Usually provided power for a small community or rural industry
in remote areas away from the grid.
 Pico-hydro
 From a few hundred watts up to 5kW
 Remote areas away from the grid. 12
 Element of Hydro power station,
1. Reservoir.
2. Catchments area.
3. Dam.
(a) Earthen dam.
(b) Masonry dam.
(c) Concrete dam.
4. Spill ways.
5. Screen.
6. Fore bay or Intake.
 Element of Hydro power station,
7. Tunnel.
8. Penstock or pipe line.
9. Surge tower.
10. Draft tube.
11. Tail race.
12. Fish passes.
13. Turbine.
Different type of turbine use in hydro power station

1.High head schemes. (Impulse turbine-pelton wheel)

2.Medium head schemes. (reaction turbine )

3.Low head schemes. (propeller turbine )

 Types of Hydroelectric Installation

16

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

view of penstock &draft tube in Hydro power plant.
 Hydro electric power plant.`

Impulse turbine for High

head plant.
Hydro electric power plant.`

Medium head
plant
Major Hydropower Producers

20
World’s Largest Dams
Max Annual
Name Country Year Generation Production

Three Gorges China 2009 18,200 MW

Itaipú Brazil/Paraguay 1983 12,600 MW 93.4 TW-hrs

Guri Venezuela 1986 10,200 MW 46 TW-hrs

Grand Coulee United States 1942/80 6,809 MW 22.6 TW-hrs

Sayano Shushenskaya Russia 1983 6,400 MW

Robert-Bourassa Canada 1981 5,616 MW

Churchill Falls Canada 1971 5,429 MW 35 TW-hrs

Iron Gates Romania/Serbia 1970 2,280 MW 11.3 TW-hrs

Ranked by maximum power. 21
Three Gorges Dam (China)

22
Itaipú Dam (Brazil & Paraguay)

23
Guri Dam (Venezuela)

24
Grand Coulee Dam (US)

25
History of Hydro Power

26
 Early Irrigation Waterwheel

27

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Early Roman Water Mill

28

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Early Norse Water Mill

29

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

Hydropower Design

30
 Hydro electric power plant.`
Propeller turbine for low
head plant.
construction of penstock in hydro power station.`
View of Draft tube in Hydro electric power plant.`
Internal view of Hydro electric power plant.`
Working diagram Hydro electric power plant.`
Elevation view Hydro electric power plant.`
Out side view Hydro electric power plant.`
Meeting Peak Demands
 Hydroelectric plants:
 Start easily and quickly and change power
output rapidly
 Complement large thermal plants (coal and
nuclear), which are most efficient in serving
base power loads.
 Save millions of barrels of oil

38
Types of Systems
 Impoundment
 Hoover Dam, Grand Coulee
 Diversion or run-of-river systems
 Niagara Falls
 Most significantly smaller
 Pumped Storage
 Two way flow
 Pumped up to a storage reservoir and returned
to a lower elevation for power generation
 A mechanism for energy storage, not net energy
production
39
 Conventional Impoundment Dam

40

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html
Diversion (Run-of-River)
Hydropower

41
 Micro Run-of-River Hydropower

42

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html
 Micro Hydro Example

Used in remote locations in northern Canada 43

http://www.electrovent.com/#hydrofr
Pumped Storage Schematic

44
 Pumped Storage System

45

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

Example
Cabin Creek Pumped Hydro
(Colorado)
 Completed 1967
 Capacity – 324 MW
 Two 162 MW units
 Purpose – energy storage
 Water pumped uphill at night
 Low usage – excess base load capacity
 Water flows downhill during day/peak periods
 Helps to meet surge demand
 E.g., air conditioning demand on hot summer days
 Typical efficiency of 70 – 85%

46
Pumped Storage Power Spectrum

47
Turbine Design
Francis Turbine
Kaplan Turbine
Pelton Turbine
Turgo Turbine
New Designs

48
 Types of Hydropower Turbines

49

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

Classification of Hydro Turbines
 Reaction Turbines
 Derive power from pressure drop across turbine
 Totally immersed in water
 Angular & linear motion converted to shaft power
 Propeller, Francis, and Kaplan turbines
 Impulse Turbines
 Convert kinetic energy of water jet hitting buckets
 No pressure drop across turbines
 Pelton, Turgo, and crossflow turbines

50
 Schematic of Francis Turbine

51

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Francis Turbine Cross-Section

52

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Small Francis Turbine & Generator

53

"Water Turbine," Wikipedia.com

 Fixed-Pitch Propeller Turbine

54

"Water Turbine," Wikipedia.com

 Kaplan Turbine Schematic

55

"Water Turbine," Wikipedia.com

 Kaplan Turbine Cross Section

56

"Water Turbine," Wikipedia.com

 Vertical Kaplan Turbine Setup

57

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Horizontal Kaplan Turbine

58

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Pelton Wheel Turbine

59

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Turgo Turbine

60

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Turbine Design Ranges

 Kaplan 2 < H < 40  

 Francis 10 < H < 350
 Pelton 50 < H < 1300
 Turgo 50 < H < 250

(H = head in meters)

61

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Turbine Ranges of Application

62

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Turbine Design Recommendations
Head Pressure

High Medium Low

Impulse Pelton Crossflow Crossflow

Turgo Turgo
Multi-jet Pelton Multi-jet Pelton

Reaction   Francis Propeller

Pump-as-Turbine Kaplan

63

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Fish Friendly Turbine Design

64

www.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_rd.html
Hydro Power
Calculations

65
 Efficiency of Hydropower Plants
 Hydropower is very efficient
 Efficiency = (electrical power delivered to the
“busbar”) ÷ (potential energy of head water)
 Typical losses are due to
 Frictional drag and turbulence of flow
 Friction and magnetic losses in turbine &
generator
 Overall efficiency ranges from 75-95%

66

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Hydropower Calculations
P  g   Q  H
P  10   Q  H
 P = power in kilowatts (kW)
 g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
  = turbo-generator efficiency (0<n<1)
 Q = quantity of water flowing (m3/sec)
 H = effective head (m)

67

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Example 1a
Consider a mountain stream with an effective head of
25 meters (m) and a flow rate of 600 liters (ℓ) per
minute. How much power could a hydro plant
generate? Assume plant efficiency () of 83%.

 H = 25 m
 Q = 600 ℓ/min × 1 m3/1000 ℓ × 1 min/60sec
Q = 0.01 m3/sec
  = 0.83

 P  10QH = 10(0.83)(0.01)(25) = 2.075

P  2.1 kW
68

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Example 1b
How much energy (E) will the hydro plant generate
each year?

 E = P×t
E = 2.1 kW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 18,396 kWh annually

About how many people will this energy support

(assume approximately 3,000 kWh / person)?

 People = E÷3000 = 18396/3000 = 6.13

 About 6 people
69

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Example 2
Consider a second site with an effective head of 100
m and a flow rate of 6,000 cubic meters per
second (about that of Niagara Falls). Answer the
same questions.

 P  10QH = 10(0.83)(6000)(100)
P  4.98 million kW = 4.98 GW (gigawatts)
 E = P×t = 4.98GW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 43,625 GWh = 43.6 TWh (terrawatt hours)
 People = E÷3000 = 43.6 TWh / 3,000 kWh
People = 1.45 million people
 (This assumes maximum power production 24x7)
70

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Investigation, Planning And Design Of Micro Hydel Schemes

Investigation: Involves four stages: Reconnaissance, Pre-feasibility,

Feasibility , and Detailed Design

Reconnaissance Stage
• Assess load requirements

• Stream close to Consumers with least technical Challenges; Ensure

Community is Motivated, Committed and Willing to Pay; Ensure local
Management of Scheme

• Locate Project Close to Road; Select Perennial Stream flow with

Steep Slope; Ascertain Flow Rate by Local Enquires. Flow Rate to
Satisfy 75% Availability Criteria if not Close to Grid

• Broad Assessment of Power Requirement - Identify Location for

Intake, Head Available, Power House and Transmission Route
71
Investigation, Planning And Design Of Micro Hydel Schemes

• Measure Head and Flow Rate - Determine Power Output and

Choose Equipment -Higher Head Lower Cost Per Installed
Kilowatt -Initial Investment High, But Running Costs, Mostly
Maintenance, Low System Efficiency -Assume 45 Per Cent.

• Compare Likely Annual Income With Capital Cost -Guide to

Financial Viability - Annual Income Less Than 10 Per Cent Not
Viable. If 10–25 Per Cent Possible. Annual Income More Than 25
Per Cent, Viable.

• Present in Meetings - Findings to Community. Local Government

Staff and Development Organizations to Attend.

• Decide on Pre-feasibility and Funding for Studies

72
 Pre-feasibility Stage

• Establish discharge observation site at or near intake location and

observe for at least 2 years during lean season to fix 50% and 75 %
availability of flows for power generation.

• Also estimate flood discharge at intake and power house locations

• carry surveys of location of structures and transmission route to

consumer centers

• Survey availability of local construction materials.

73
Pre-feasibility Stage Cont…

• Based on design flows and head - fix installed capacity and

annual power generation

• Conduct rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and

prepare Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

• Fix preliminary design features of civil and electrical works,

lay out drawings, cost estimates, benefit- cost analysis and
pre-feasibility report and justification for funding

• Decide extent of local participation

• Pose scheme to govt/aid agencies for approval and funding

for feasibility studies

74
 Feasibility (Detailed Project Report) Stage

• Conduct detailed surveys and investigations for all components of

project. Fix gross head

• Establish design flows for power and flood discharge. Collect data on
other weather parameters

• Design flow norms 90% probability discharge for all hydro projects.
Has been relaxed for shps to 75% availability. For micro hydro
schemes 50% availability

• Determine geological conditions at all civil engineering sites and

availability for construction materials. Carry out EIA and EMP.

• Carry out hydropower planning studies based on 10 daily or monthly

flows and fix firm power generation and number of units to be
installed. Fix size and type of turbines to fit in generally with
indigenous manufacture
75
 Feasibility (Detailed Project Report) Stage Cont.

• Plan and design lay out and all civil and electrical engineering
features and ensure cost reduction with technology innovation
(use of local materials and labor for shps). Prepare technical
specifications and tender documents for construction. Provide
for standby diesel unit

• Prepare detailed cost estimates for all features. Identify local

voluntary inputs, if any. Assess benefits. Conduct cost benefit
analysis and establish economic feasibility.

• Prepare project report with cost estimates for all civil and
electrical works, construction schedule, economic analysis.
Obtain environmental clearance.

• Pose scheme for govt./International/ NGO assistance

76
 Detailed Design
 After approval/securing of funds for implementation, mobilize
construction activity. Carry out any residual investigations. Float
tenders for construction and procurement of materials, electrical and
mechanical equipment. Evaluate tenders and award contracts

• Mobilize construction management at site and involve local people

in all activities
• Establish project monitoring mechanism
• Carry out detailed design of all components of project
• Testing and commissioning of project
• Training of operational personnel
• Formally inaugurate the project
• Prepare completion report

77
Economics of Hydropower

78
 Production Expense Comparison

79

Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company, http://www.wvic.com/hydro-facts.htm

 Capital Costs of Several Hydro Plants

Note that these are for countries where costs are bound to be
lower than for fully industrialized countries

80

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 High Upfront Capital Expenses
 5 MW hydro plant with 25 m low head
 Construction cost of ~$20 million
 Negligible ongoing costs
 Ancillary benefits from dam
 flood control, recreation, irrigation, etc.
 50 MW combined-cycle gas turbine
 ~$20 million purchase cost of equipment
 Significant ongoing fuel costs
 Short-term pressures may favor fossil fuel
energy production
81

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

Environmental Impacts

82
Impacts of Hydroelectric Dams

83
Ecological Impacts
 Loss of forests, wildlife habitat, species
 Degradation of upstream catchment areas due to
inundation of reservoir area
 Rotting vegetation also emits greenhouse gases
 Loss of aquatic biodiversity, fisheries, other
downstream services
 Cumulative impacts on water quality, natural flooding
 Disrupt transfer of energy, sediment, nutrients
 Sedimentation reduces reservoir life, erodes turbines
 Creation of new wetland habitat
 Fishing and recreational opportunities provided by new
reservoirs
84
Environmental and Social Issues
 Land use – inundation and displacement of people
 Impacts on natural hydrology
 Increase evaporative losses
 Altering river flows and natural flooding cycles
 Sedimentation/silting
 Impacts on biodiversity
 Aquatic ecology, fish, plants, mammals
 Water chemistry changes
 Mercury, nitrates, oxygen
 Bacterial and viral infections
 Tropics
 Seismic Risks
 Structural dam failure risks

85
Hydropower – Pros and Cons
Positive
Emissions-free, with virtually no CO2, NOX,
SOX, hydrocarbons, or particulates
Renewable resource with high conversion
efficiency to electricity (80+%)
Dispatchable with storage capacity
Usable for base load, peaking and pumped
storage applications
Scalable from 10 KW to 20,000 MW
Low operating and maintenance costs
Long lifetimes
Negative
Frequently involves impoundment of large
amounts of water with loss of habitat due
to land inundation
Variable output – dependent on rainfall and
snowfall
Impacts on river flows and aquatic ecology,
including fish migration and oxygen
depletion
Social impacts of displacing indigenous
people
Health impacts in developing countries
High initial capital costs
Long lead time in construction of large
86
projects
 Advantages of Hydro power station.
1. The plant is simple in construction, robust and required low
maintenance.
2. It can be put in the service instantly.
3. It can respond to changing loads without any difficulty.
4. There are no stand by losses.
5. The running charges are very small.
6. No fuels is burnt.
7. The plant is quite neat and clean.
8. The water after running the turbine can be used for irrigation and
other purpose.
 Disadvantage of Hydro power station.

1. The capital cost of generators, civil engineering work etc.

2. High cost of transmission lines.
3. Long dry seasons may effect the delivery of power.
Selection of site for Hydro electric power station.

1. sufficient quantity of water at a reasonable head should be

available.
2. The site should allow for strong foundations with minimum cost.
3. There should be no possibility of future source of leakage of water.
4. The selected site should be accessible easily.
5. There should be possibility of stream diversion during construction
period.
6. The reservoir to be constructed should have large catchments area,
so that the water in it should never full below the minimum level.
Regulations and Policy

90
Energy Policy Act of 2005
Hydroelectric Incentives
 Production Tax Credit – 1.8 ¢/KWh
 For generation capacity added to an existing facility
 (non-federally owned)
 Adjusted annually for inflation
 10 year payout, $750,000 maximum/year per facility
 A facility is defined as a single turbine
 Expires 2016
 Efficiency Incentive
 10% of the cost of capital improvement
 Efficiency hurdle - minimum 3% increase
 Maximum payout - $750,000
 One payment per facility
 Maximum $10M/year
 Expires 2016
 5.7 MW proposed through June 2006
91
World Commission on Dams
 Established in 1998
 Mandates
 Review development effectiveness of large dams and
assess alternatives for water resources and energy
development; and
 Develop internationally acceptable criteria and
guidelines for most aspects of design and operation
of dams
 Highly socially aware organization
 Concern for indigenous and tribal people
 Seeks to maximize preexisting water and
energy systems before making new dams

92
Other Agencies Involved
 FERC – Federal Energy Regulatory Comm.
 Ensures compliance with environmental law
 IWRM – Integrated Water & Rsrc Mgmt
 “Social and economic development is
inextricably linked to both water and energy.
The key challenge for the 21st century is to
expand access to both for a rapidly increasing
human population, while simultaneously
addressing the negative social and
environmental impacts.” (IWRM)

93
Future of Hydropower

94
 Hydro Development Capacity

95

hydropower.org
 Developed Hydropower Capacity

96

World Atlas of Hydropower and Dams, 2002

 Regional Hydropower Potential

97

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

Extra Hydropower Slides
Included for your viewing pleasure

98
Hydrologic Cycle

99
 World Hydropower

100

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Major Hydropower Producers
 Canada, 341,312 GWh (66,954 MW installed)
 USA, 319,484 GWh (79,511 MW installed)
 Brazil, 285,603 GWh (57,517 MW installed)
 China, 204,300 GWh (65,000 MW installed)
 Russia, 173,500 GWh (44,700 MW installed)
 Norway, 121,824 GWh (27,528 MW installed)
 Japan, 84,500 GWh (27,229 MW installed)
 India, 82,237 GWh (22,083 MW installed)
 France, 77,500 GWh (25,335 MW installed)

1999 figures, including pumped-storage hydroelectricity

101

“Hydroelectricity,” Wikipedia.org
Types of Water Wheels

102
 World Energy Sources

103

hydropower.org
 Evolution of Hydro Production

OECD: most of Europe, Mexico, Japan, Korea, Turkey, New Zealand, UK, US
104

iea.org
 Evolution of Hydro Production

OECD: most of Europe, Mexico, Japan, Korea, Turkey, New Zealand, UK, US
105

iea.org
Schematic of Impound
Hydropower

106
Schematic of Impound
Hydropower

107
Cruachan Pumped Storage
(Scotland)

108
Francis Turbine – Grand Coulee

109
 Historically…
 Pumped hydro was first used in Italy and
Switzerland in the 1890's.
 By 1933 reversible pump-turbines with motor-
generators were available
 Adjustable speed machines now used to improve
efficiency
 Pumped hydro is available
at almost any scale with
discharge times ranging
from several hours to a
few days.
 Efficiency = 70 – 85%

110

http://www.electricitystorage.org/tech/technologies_technologies_pumpedhydro.htm
Small Horizontal Francis Turbine

111
Francis and Turgo Turbine Wheels

112
Turbine Application Ranges

113