1

Four Basic Bulk Deformation

Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing
rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening
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• Rolling – reducing the thickness or changing the
cross-section of a long work piece by compressive
forces applied through a set of rolls
• Developed in late 1500s
• Accounts for 90% of all metals produced by metal
working processes
• Often carried out at elevated temperatures first (hot
rolling) to change coarse-grained, brittle, and porous
ingot structures to wrought structures with finer grain
sizes and enhanced properties
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Rolling
The gap between the rotating rolls
is less than the thickness of the
entering bar therefore a friction
force is necessary in order to
bite the bar and to pull it
through the
rolls.
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1. Rolling
Deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

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The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them by
friction between work part and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its
cross section
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Types of Rolling
Based on work-piece geometry:
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I‑beam
Based on work temperature:
Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
 types of Rolling

Hot rolling - is a rolling operation carried out at a

temperature just below the metal melting point, permitting
large amount of deformation
Cold rolling - is a rolling operation carried out at room
temperature. Cold rolling is commonly conducted after hot
rolling when good surface quality and low thickness
tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes material
strengthening.
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Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured
cross section rather than flat
(rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work
through rolls that have the reverse of
desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as
I‑beams, L‑beams, and U‑channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods
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ROLLING PRODUCTS– 12
 13

Rolled Products Made of Steel

150*150mm
From Ingot

250*40mm
From
Ingot/Bloom

40*40mm
From Bloom
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.
Diagram of Flat Rolling
14

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
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Flat Rolling Terminology

E Dof thickness reduction
D
Draft = amount
U
C L
T IN
d= t o− tf
NO

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final

thickness; d max= max possible draft; μ: Friction Coefficient;
R: Roll radius
 16

Rolling Mills
The rolling mill consists of rolls , bearings to support the
rolls, gear box , motor , speed control devices, hydraulic
systems etc..
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
Two-high – two opposing rolls
Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls
Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
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Two-High Rolling Mill

A two-high non-reversing, which means
there are two rolls that turn only in one
direction. Roll dia: 0.6-1.4m
The two-high reversing mill has rolls that
can rotate in both directions, but the
disadvantage is that the rolls must be
stopped, reversed, and then brought
back up to rolling speed between each
pass
Two-High reversing Rolling Mill
An improvement in productivity results from the use
of TWO-HIGH reversing mill. In which the work
can be passed back and front through the rolls by
reversing their direction of rotation. The enables
the work to travel through in one direction the
back through in the other direction . This enables
the work to travel through in one direction the
back through in the other direction. A series of
reductions can be made using the same set of rolls,
by passing the work back and front
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Three-High Rolling Mill

It consists of 3 rolls of equal size
one above the another .upper and Roll dia: 0.6-1.4m
lower rolls are power driven, while
the middle roll rotates by friction .in
this type back and forth operations
can be performed simultaneously .
The production from the first pass ,
usually at the lower end is fed at the
upper rolls for the second pass.
Lifting tables are provided on one or
both sides of the stand to raise and
lower the bar after each pass.
The disadvantage to this system is
the work-piece must be lifted and
lowered using an elevator
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Four-High Rolling Mill

Usually large diameter rolls in 2 or 3 high

mills have a larger contact area and
requires higher roll force and energy.

A small roll diameter is advantageous

because less roll is in contact with the
material, which results in a lower force and
energy requirement. Because of less friction
The stiffness of small roll is increased by
back-up large roll
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Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

These types of mills are commonly used for

rolling of thin sheet or foil to close
dimensional tolerances. The working rolls
are very small (as small as 10mm)which in
turn are backed by two rolls of bigger size
The sendzimir mill is a modification of the
cluster mill with 20 rolls. Which is very well
adapted to rolling thin sheets or foil from
high-strength alloys. Hard materials,
including stainless steels,titanium alloys
and nickel alloys may be rolled in these
mills.
 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two-high; (b) three- high;
(c) four-high; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.
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Tandem Rolling Mill

A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one pass.
in this mill each set of rolls is called stand and a group of stands is called train.
In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, since the thickness is
reducing at each stand, the strip velocity will be different at each stand . The speed
increases at each stand starting from the first stand .thus the speed of each roll is set
such that each stand receives the strip at a speed equal to the delivery speed of its
preceding stand. the strip is fed from the un coiler drum and received at the windup
drum. and also provides back tension and front tension to the strip.

The number of stands ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mill can be either hot or cold
rolling mill type
Planetary rolling mill
this mill consists of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large
number of small planetary rolls. The main feature of this mill is that it hot
reduces a slab to coiled strip in a single pass. Each planetary roll gives
the an almost constant reduction to the slab . As each pair of planetary
rolls ceases to have a contact with the work piece .the overall reduction is
the summation of a series of small reductions by each pair of rolls

The action in this mill is more like forging than rolling. it is necessary to
use feed rolls to introduce the slab into the mill , and a pair of planishing
rolls may be needed on the exit side to improve the surface finish
 ROLLING
• Hot rolling is a hot working process where large pieces of metal, such
as slabs or billets, are heated above their recrystallization temperature
and then deformed between rollers to form thinner cross sections.

• While cold rolling increases the hardness and strength of a metal, it

also results in a large decrease in ductility. Thus metals strengthened by
cold rolling are more sensitive to the presence of cracks and are prone
to brittle fracture.

• Recrystallization temperature The minimum temperature at which

complete recrystallization occurs in.
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The initial breakdown of ingots into blooms & billets
is generally done by
hot-rolling. And then cold-rolling is to be done to get
good surface finish and
close control over dimension.

HOT ROLLING - occurs above the recrystallization

temperature of the material.
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• Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or

simple cross sections,
such as rail tracks.
• It will reduce the average grain size of metal, this
improves the strength
of material.
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• COLD ROLLING – Used to produce sheet & strip with superior
surface finish and dimensional tolerance.
• Also, the strain hardening results from the cold reduction may be
used to give increased strength.

• Total reduction achieved will vary from 50 to 90 percent.

• The lowest percentage reduction is taken in the last pass to permit
better control of flatness, gage and surface finish.
• Done usually at room temperature.
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• Four-high or cluster mills are used. (Al, Cu alloys)
• Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as
much as hot rolling
in a single pass.
• This process increases strength upto 20% via strain
hardening.

Hmax = μ2R

Hmax - Maximum thickness reduction in one pass

μ – Static friction coefficient between rolls and metal
R – Radius of rolls
HOT ROLLING
• Hot rolling produces thinner cross sections than
cold rolling processes with the same number of
stages. Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will
reduce the average grain size of a metal while
maintaining a certain soft microstructure, where as
cold rolling will produce a hardened
microstructure.
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The first hot rolling operation for most steel products is
done on the blooming mill .they are usually two high reversing
mills with 0.75 to 1.25m diameter( cast or forged rolls and each
weighing about 20 tons.) they are driven by a electric motor of
about 15MW capacity. the whole structure of the mill is robust and
massive to facilitate large working forces and quick reversals
involving high vibrations/ shocks
.
There is an appreciable spreading of the ingot width in hot rolling
of ingots. To maintain the desired width and preserve the edges the
ingot is turned 90º on intermediate passes and passes through the
edging grooves in the rolls
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– A reversing primary mill has a relatively low production rate. So

that universal mills are used get the more production .it
essentially made up of two rolling mills ,one with two larger
diameter rolls and the other with vertical rolls which control the
width at the same time thickness also reduced.

– In hot rolling of steels slabs are heated initially at 1100 to

1300ºC.the temp in the last finishing stand varies from 700 to
900ºC , but should be above the upper critical temp to produce
uniform equiaxed ferrite grains.
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COLD WORKING
Used to produce sheet or strip with superior surface finish and
dimensional tolerances.
Increased strength
A greater percentage of nonferrous metals is finished by cold
rolling.(even produced by hot rolling)
The starting material for cold rolled steel sheet is picked from
hot rolled breakdown coil of continuous hot strip mill.
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• High speed four high tandem mills with three to five stands are used for the
cold rolling of steel sheet, aluminium copper alloys. and it provides front
and back tension.
• A continuous mill has high capacity and results in low labour cost.
• This type of mill is used often for production of special items that vary
widely in dimensions.
• In establishing the reduction in each pass or in each stand. It is desirable to
distribute the work as uniformly as possible over the various passes without
falling very much below the maximum reduction in each pass. generally the
lowest percentage reduction is taken in the last pass to permit better control
of flatness, gauge and surface finish.
The important schedules is to adjust the reduction in each pass so as to produce
a constant rolling load.
Hot rolling Advantages :
1. Larger deformation can be accomplished and more
rapidly by hot working since the metal is in plastic
state.
2. Porosity of the metal is considerably minimized.
3. Concentrated impurities, if any in the metal are
disintegrated and distributed throughout the metal.
4. Grain structure of the metal is refined and physical
properties improved.
Flat-Rolling Practice
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Hot rolling Disadvantages :
1. Due to high temperature a rapid oxidation or scale formation
takes place on the metal surface, leading to poor surface
finish and loss of metal.
2. On account of the lost of carbon from the surface of the steel
piece being worked the surface layer loses its strength,
which is a disadvantage when the part is put to service.
3. This weakening of the surface layer may give rise to crack
which may ultimately result in fatigue failure of the part.
4. Close tolerances cannot be maintained.
5. It involves excessive expenditure on account of high cost of
tooling. This, however, is compensated by the high
production rate and better quality of products
Cold rolling advantages and limitations
1.Better dimensional control than hot working is possible because the
reduction in size is not much.
2.Surface finish of the component is better because no oxidation
takes place during the process.
3.Strength and hardness of the metal are increased.
4.It is an ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals which
do not respond to the heat treatment.
5.Only ductile metals can be shaped through cold working.
6.Over-working of metal results in brittleness and it has to be
annealed to remove the same.
7. Subsequent heat treatment is mostly needed to remove the residual
stresses set up during cold working.
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 45
• Surface irregularities – Raw material or ingot having irregularities
due to scaling.
Non-Metallic inclusions – Oxides, nitrides or silicates especially in
steels, they may produce severe cracks separating the product into
two halves.
Internal Pores – Due to presence of gases like hydrogen,
oxygen,nitrogen. This leads to elongation of pores and product
may become weaker.

• Waviness – Occurs because the roll gap is not perfectly parallel and
due to the uneven speed of rolls.

• Edge Cracking – Length of the center portion increases but the

edges are
prevented due to the frictional force.
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(a) – edges of the sheet elongated
to
a greater extent in the longitudinal
direction than the center.

(b) – If the edges are free to move

relative to center.

(c) – Center portion of sheet is

stretched in tension and the edges
are compressed in rolling direction

(d) – wavy edge or edge buckle.

(e) – Cracks in the center of the

sheet.
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Defects resulting from lateral spread.

Edge cracking and center split.
(a) Light reduction
(b) Heavy reduction
(c) Alligatoring
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