RESONATORS AND

WAVEGUIDES

 BY: P. Vijaya & Niraja

 Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves with
wavelengths ranging from as long as a few centimeter
to as short as one millimeter and with frequencies
ranging from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
 Microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30
GHz).
1. Larger Bandwidth
2. Better Directive Properties

3. Lower Power Requirement

4. Fading effect
 A definite relationship exists between the frequency
(f) and the corresponding wavelength (λ) of
electromagnetic waves .The product of these two i.e.
(f) and (λ) gives the velocity of propagation of
electro-magnetic waves and it is equal to the velocity
of light .
 This is expressed as c=f*λ
c= velocity of light. (approx. 3* 108 m/sec ).
1.Communication :
 Microwaves is used in broadcasting and

Telecom. transmission, due to their short

wavelength, highly directional antennas are
smaller . Mobile phone networks, like GSM,
use the low microwave/UHF frequencies
around 1.8 and 1.9GHz .
 Microwaves are used in television signal to
transmit a signal from a remote location to a
television station from a specially equipped
van.
 Microwave are used for comm. from one point

to another via satellite.

 Satellite TV either operates in the C band for

the traditional large dish fixed satellite service

or Ku band for direct –broadcast satellite.
2. Remote Sensing :
 The most important application of remote

sensing is RADAR, that uses a transmitter to

illuminate an object and a receiver to detect its
position and velocity.
 Another class of remote sensing is radio

astronomy .It is a sub-class of astronomy that

studies celestial objects at radio frequencies.
3.Heating Application
 Baking :

The heating property of microwaves are used

for baking, cooking using microwave oven. In
microwave oven ,the food is heated directly by
microwave radiations without heating the
container. The cooking time very small as
compare to conventional heating
 Concentrating :
Permits concentration of heat sensitive
solution and slurries at relatively low
temperatures. Also applicable to highly
corrosive or viscous solutions
 Drying :

microwaves are used for drying the solids.

Drying is uniform throughout the product
moisture present in the product is evaporated
out .Drying is at relatively low temp.
 Enzyme Inactivation :
The enzyme inactivation can be achieved by
rapid and uniform heating which can control
and terminate enzyme reactions.
 Precooking :

Microwaves are ideal for precooking the food

items because there is no overcooking of the
surface and cooking losses are negligible i.e is
nutrients in the food are not lost.
 Frequency Characteristics : Microwaves are
very short frequency radio waves that have many
of the characteristics of light waves they travel in
line of sight paths and can be reflected and
focused .
By focusing these ultra high radio waves into a
narrow beam, their energies are concentrated and
relatively low transmitting power is required for
reliable transmission over long distance .
System Capacity :
 Microwaves communication systems are used to

carry telephony, television and data signals.

 Majority of the system carry multi- channel

telephone signals (base band ). Individual

telephone channels , 4KHz wide are multiplexed
together in a multiplexer equipment to get the
base band. At microwave due to high bandwidth
capacity is more.
As already mentioned ,microwave is an
electromagnetic wave ranging from
approximately 1GHz in frequency, but older
usage includes lower frequencies . Most
common applications are within the range1 to
40GHz.
Letter Designation Frequency Range
L band 1 to 2 GHz

S band 2 to 4 GHz

C band 4 to 8 GHz

X band 8 to 12 GHz

Ku band 12 to 18 GHz

K band 18 to 26.5 GHz

Ka band 26.5 to 40 GHz

Millimeter (mm) 40 to 300 GHz

Sub –Millimeter 300 to above (GHz)

Classification of Microwaves on the basis
of Frequency bands :
1. L-band: L-band (20-cm radar long band) is a portion
of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum
ranging roughly from 0.39 to 1.55 GHz. It is used by
some communication satellite and by terrestrial.
2. S-band: S-band or 10 cm. radar short band, is the
part of microwave band of the electromagnetic
spectrum ranging roughly from 1.55 to 5.2 GHz. It is
used by weather radar and some communication
satellites
3. C-band: C-band (“ Compromise” band) is a portion
of electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range
of frequencies ranging from 4 to 6 GHz.
4. X-band: The X-band (3 cm radar spot band) of the
microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum
roughly ranges from 5.2 to 10.9 GHz. It is used by
some communication satellite and X-band radar.
5. Ku-band: The Ku-band (Kurz-under band) is a
portion of electromagnetic spectrum in the
microwave range of frequency range 11 to 18 GHz.
It’s primarily used for satellite communication.
6. K-band: It is a portion of the EM wave spectrum in
the microwave range of frequency range between 12
to 40 GHz. The K comes from Kurz. K-band between
18 to 26.5GHz is absorbed easily by water vapour.
7. Ka-band: The Ka-band ( Kurz-above band is a
portion of the K-band) of the microwave band of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Ka-band roughly ranges
from 18 to 40 GHz.
19
Rectangular waveguide Waveguide to coax adapter

Waveguide bends E-tee

 To reduce attenuation loss
◦ High frequencies
◦ High power
 Can operate only above certain frequencies
◦ Acts as a High-pass filter
 Normally circular or rectangular
◦ We will assume lossless rectangular
 Need to find the fields
components of the em wave
inside the waveguide
◦ Ez Hz Ex Hx Ey Hy
 We’ll find that waveguides
don’t support TEM waves
Using phases & assuming waveguide filled with
 lossless dielectric material and
 walls of perfect conductor, the wave inside
should obey.  Ek E 0
2 2

 H k H 0
2 2

where k    c
2 2
  Ez  k Ez  0
2 2

 2 Ez  2 Ez  2 Ez
   k 2
Ez  0
x 2
y 2
z 2

Solving by method of Separation of Variables :

E z ( x, y, z )  X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
from where we obtain :
X '' Y '' Z ''
   k 2
X Y Z
 h  k k k
2 2 2 2
x
2
y
X '' Y '' Z ''
   k 2
X Y Z
 k x2  k y2   2   k 2 X(x)  c1 cos k x x  c2 sin k x x
which results in the expressions :
X ''  k x2 X  0 Y(y)  c3 cos k y y  c4 sin k y y
Y ''  k y2Y  0
z z
Z ''   2 Z  0 Z ( z )  c5e  c6e
 X(x)  c1 cos k x x  c2 sin k x x
Y(y)  c3 cos k y y  c4 sin k y y
E z ( x, y, z )  X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z ) Z ( z )  c5ez  c6 e z


E z   c1 cos k x x  c2 sin k x x   c3 cos k y y  c4 sin k y y  c5ez  c6 e z 
If only looking at the wave traveling in  z - direction :
E z   A1 cos k x x  A2 sin k x x   A3 cos k y y  A4 sin k y y e z
Similarly for the magnetic field,
H z   B1 cos k x x  B2 sin k x x   B3 cos k y y  B4 sin k y y e z
From Faraday and Ampere Laws we can find the
remaining four components:
 E zj H z *So once we know
Ex   
h 2 x h2 y Ez and Hz, we can
 E z j H z find all the other
Ey   2 
h y h2 x fields.
j E z  H z
Hx   2
h 2
y h x
j E z  H z
Hy    2
h 2
x h y
where
h2   2
 k 2  k x2  k y2
From these equations we can conclude:
 TEM (Ez=Hz=0) can’t propagate.
 TE (Ez=0) transverse electric
◦ In TE mode, the electric lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis
of the waveguide
 TM (Hz=0) transverse magnetic, Ez exists
◦ In TM mode, the magnetic lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis
of the waveguide.

 HE hybrid modes in which all components exists

E z   A1 cos k x x  A2 sin k x x   A3 cos k y y  A4 sin k y y e z

 Boundary E z  0 at y  0 ,b
conditions: E z  0 at x  0,a
From these, we conclude:
X(x) is in the form of sin kxx,
where kx=mp/a, m=1,2,3,…
Y(y) is in the form of sin kyy,
where ky=np/b, n=1,2,3,…
So the solution for Ez(x,y,z) is jz
E z  A2 A4  sin k x x   sin k y y e
 Substituting

 m   n   jz
E z  Eo sin  x  sin  y e
 a   b 
where
2
 m   n 
2
 k
2 2
h 
2
  
 a   b 
  m   n   jz
E z  Eo sin  x  sin  y e
 a   b 
Hz  0
 Other components are
 E z   m   mx   ny  z
Ex   2 Ex   2   Eo cos  sin  e
h x h  a   a   b 
 E z   n   mx   ny  z
Ey   2 Ey   2   Eo sin   cos e
h y h  b   a   b 
j E z j  n   mx   ny  z
Hx  2 Hx  2   Eo sin   cos e
h y h  b   a   b 
j E z j  m   mx   ny  z
Hy   2 Hy   2   Eo cos  sin  e
h x h  a   a   b 
 The m and n represent the mode of propagation
and indicates the number of variations of the
field in the x and y directions
 Note that for the TM mode, if n or m is zero, all
fields are zero.
 See applet by Paul Falstad
  k 2
x 
 k y2  k 2
2 2
 m   n 
       
2

 a   b 
 The cutoff frequency occurs when
2 2
 m   n 
When c    then     j  0
2
  
 a   b 
2 2
1 1  m   n 
 Evanescent: or f c     
2   a   b 
2 2
 m   n 
When    
2
      and   0
 a   b 
◦ Means no propagation, everything is attenuated
2 2
 m   n 
 Propagation: When  2         j and   0
 a   b 
◦ This is the case we are interested since is when the wave is allowed to travel
through the guide.
 attenuation Propagation
of mode mn

fc,mn
 The cutoff frequency is the frequency below
which attenuation occurs and above which
propagation takes place. (High Pass)
2 2
u'  m   n 
f c mn     
2  a  b
 The phase constant becomes
2 2 2
 m   n   fc 
            ' 1   
2

 a   b  f 
 The phase velocity is defined as

 2 u p
up   
'  f
 And the intrinsic impedance of the mode
is
2
Ex Ey  fc 
TM    ' 1  
Hy Hx f 
Wave in the dielectric Inside the waveguide
medium
2
f 
 '   / u '       ' 1  c 
f 

2
 '  /  f 
TM  ' 1  c 
f 

up  /
u '   /  '  f  1 / 
2
f 
 ' 1  c 
f 

'
 
 '  u' / f  f 
2

1  c 
 f 
 Related example of how fields look:
Parallel plate waveguide - TM modes
 mx  e j t  z 
E z  A sin 
Ez
 a 
m=1
0 ax
m=2

m=3
z a x
 H z   B1 cos k x x  B2 sin k x x   B3 cos k y y  B4 sin k y y e z

 Boundary E x  0 at y  0 ,b
conditions: E y  0 at x  0 ,a
From these, we conclude:
X(x) is in the form of cos kxx, where
kx=m/a, m=0,1,2,3,…
Y(y) is in the form of cos kyy, where
ky=n/b, n=0,1,2,3,…
So the solution for Ez(x,y,z) is

H z  B1 B3  cos k x x   cos k y y  e  jz

 Substituting

 mx   n   jz
H z  H o cos  cos y e
 a   b 
where again
2 2
 m   n 
h 
2
  
 a   b 

 Note that n and m cannot be both zero

because the fields will all be zero.
  m   n   jz
H z  H o cos x  cos y e
 a   b 
Ez  0
 Other components are
j H z j  n   mx   ny  z
Ex   2 Ex  2   H o cos  sin  e
h y h  b   a   b 
j H z j  m   mx   ny  z
Ey   2 Ey   2   H o sin   cos e
h x h  a   a   b 
 H z j  m   mx   ny  z
Hx   2 Hx  2   H o sin   cos e
h x h  a   a   b 
 H z
Hy   2 j   n   mx   ny  z
h y Hy  2   H o cos  sin  e
h  b   a   b 
 attenuation Propagation
of mode mn

fc,mn

 The cutoff frequency is the same expression as

for the TM mode
2 2
u'  m   n 
f c mn     
2  a  b

 But the lowest attainable frequencies are lowest

because here n or m can be zero.
 The dominant mode is the mode with lowest cutoff
frequency.
 It’s always TE10
 The order of the next modes change depending on the
dimensions of the guide.
 Pipe through which waves propagate
 Can have various cross sections
◦ Rectangular
◦ Circular
◦ Elliptical
 Can be rigid or flexible
 Waveguides have very low loss
 Waves can propagate in various ways
 Time taken to move down the guide varies with the
mode
 Each mode has a cutoff frequency below which it
won’t propagate
 Mode with lowest cutoff frequency is dominant mode
 TE: transverse electric
◦ Electric field is at right angles to direction of travel
 TM: transverse magnetic
◦ Magnetic field is at right angles to direction of travel
 TEM: transverse electromagnetic
◦ Waves in free space are TEM
 Dominant mode is TE10
◦ 1 half cycle along long dimension (a)
◦ No half cycles along short dimension (b)
◦ Cutoff for a = c/2
 Modes with next higher cutoff frequency are TE01 and
TE20

◦ Both have cutoff frequency twice that for TE10

 For TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide with
a=2b

c
fc 
2a
 Single mode propagation is highly desirable to reduce
dispersion
 This occurs between cutoff frequency for TE10 mode
and twice that frequency
 It’s not good to use guide at the extremes of this
range
 RG-52/U
 Internal dimensions 22.9 by 10.2 mm
 Cutoff at 6.56 GHz
 Use from 8.2-12.5 GHz
 Waves propagate at speed of light c in guide
 Waves don’t travel straight down guide
 Speed at which signal moves down guide is the group
velocity and is always less than c
2
 fc 
v g  c 1   
 f 
 Not a real velocity (>c)
 Apparent velocity of wave along wall
 Used for calculating wavelength in guide
◦ For impedance matching etc.
c
vp 
2
 fc 
1   
 f 
 Z0 varies with frequency

377
Z0  
2
 fc 
1 
 f 

 
 Longer than free-space wavelength at same frequency


g  2
 fc 
1 
 f 
 
Wave in the dielectric Inside the waveguide
medium
2
f 
 '   / u '       ' 1  c 
f 

'
TE 
 '  /  f 
2

1  c 
f 

up  /
u '   /  '  f  1 /  f 
 ' 1  c 
2

f 

'
 '  u' / f  
 f 
2

1  c 
 f 
 Wave impedance varies with frequency and mode


TE

’
TM

 fc,mn
 Is the velocity at which the
energy travels.
2 j     mx  z
1  fc   rad/s   m  Ey   2   H o sin  e
ug   u' 1     rad/m    s 
h a  a 
 /  f     

 It is always less than u’

u p u g   u '
2
 As frequency is increased, the group velocity increases.  
 The average Poynting vector for the waveguide fields
is 1
Pave 
2
1

Re E  H 
* * *
 2

Re E x H y  E y H x 
2 2
Ex  E y
 zˆ [W/m2]
2
 where h = hTE or hTM depending on the mode

2 2
a b
Ex  E y
Pave   Pave  dS    dy dx [W]
x 0 y 0
2
 When dielectric inside guide is lossy, and walls
are not perfect conductors, power is lost as it
travels along guide.
Pave  Po e 2z

dPave
 The loss power is PL    2Pave
dz
 Where a=ac+ad are the attenuation due to ohmic
(conduction) and dielectric losses
 Usually a >> a
c d
 Dielectric attenuation, Np/m Dielectric
conductivity!
 '
d   2
 f 
2 1   c 
 f 
 Conductor attenuation, Np/m
2 Rs  b  f 
2

c    0.5   c ,10  
2  a  f  
 f c ,10     
b ' 1   
 f 