METHODS OF RESEARCH

CHRISTINE B. DIOCOS, PhD

 What is research?

• A systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

evaluation of the hypothetical proposition
about presumed relations among natural
phenomena.
• A high school principal wants to improve the morale of her faculty.
• The director of a gifted student program would like to know what
happens during a typical week in an English class for
advanced placement students.
• An elementary school counselor wishes he could get more students
to open up to him about their worries and problems.
• A tenth grade biology teacher wonders if discussion are more
effective than lectures in motivating students to learn biological
concepts.
• A physical education teacher wonders if ability in one sport
correlates with ability in other sports.
• A seventh grade student asks her counselor what she can do to
improve her study habits.
• The president of a local PTA wonders how he can get more
parents involved in school related activities.
 Why Research is of Value?

• To obtain information that is accurate and reliable

1. Sensory experience – information

we get through our senses
2. Agreement with others- common Ways of
knowledge Knowing
3. Expert opinion-
4. Logic – use of intellect ( the
capability to reason things out
5. The scientific method
 The Role of Research in Development
• Seeks order for clearer direction and
guidance in problem solving
• Vital in arriving at intelligent decisions
• Measures and appraise present conditions
• Evaluates the effects of policies, programs
and activities
• Predicts future events
 Characteristics of Research
• Directed toward the solution of a problem
• Emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles and theories
• Based on observable experience or empirical
evidence
• Demands accurate observation and description
• Involves gathering new data from primary or first
hand sources or using existing data for a new
purpose
• More often characterized by carefully designed
procedures that applied rigorous analysis
 Characteristics of Research
• Requires expertise
• Tries to be objective and logical applying every
possible test to validate the procedure
employed
• Involves the quest for answers to unsolved
problems
• Characterized by patient and unhurried activity
• Carefully recorded and reported
• Requires courage
Research is an avenue through
which new knowledge is
discovered, applied or verified
and through which appropriate
technologies are generated.
 Funding
Priorities and Other
and resources
Relevance
Implementati
on,
Monitoring,
Evaluation and
Utilization

Strong Research Culture

 Q
U
…a detailed examination of
A a single instance or case of
L something, usually through
I intensive interviewing or
T
A analysis of other evidence.
T • ethnography
I • historical research
V
E • grounded theory
RESEARCH • action research
METHODS
• What goes on in an elementary school
classroom during an average week?
(ethnography)
• What were the major discipline problems in
schools in 1940 as compared today? (historical
research)
• Are the description of people in social studies
discussion biased? (grounded theory)
 Q …collect and analyze
U
A
numerical data obtained
N from formal instruments
T • descriptive research (“survey
I
T research”)
A • correlational research
T
I • causal-comparative research
V (“ex post facto research”)
E
RESEARCH • experimental research
METHODS
• How do parents feel about the school
counseling program? (survey)
• How can we predict which students might have
trouble learning certain kinds of subject
matter? (correlational)
• Do teachers behave differently toward students
of different gender? (causal-comparative)
• Effects of student questions and teacher
questions on concept acquisition.
(experimental)
 Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in- Surveys, structured interviews &
depth interviews, and reviews of observations, and reviews of
documents for types of themes records or documents for numeric
information
Primarily inductive process used to Primarily deductive process used to
formulate theory or hypotheses test pre-specified concepts,
constructs, and hypotheses that
make up a theory

More subjective: describes a More objective: provides observed

problem or condition from the effects (interpreted by researchers)
point of view of those experiencing of a program on a problem or
it condition

Text-based Number-based
 Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
More in-depth information on Less in-depth but more breadth
a few cases of information across a large
number of cases
Unstructured or semi- Fixed response options
structured response options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for
analysis
Can be valid and reliable: Can be valid and reliable: largely
largely depends on skill and depends on the measurement
rigor of the researcher device or instrument used
Time expenditure lighter on Time expenditure heavier on
the planning end and heavier the planning phase and lighter on
during the analysis phase the analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable
 Reasons for Conducting a Research
Study
• If there is no answer to a particular
problem
• If there is a gap in knowledge
• If there are answers to problems but the
answers are not yet tested
• If a contradiction exist
• If there is an insufficient solution to a
problem
 Ethics in Research
• Ethics refers to questions regarding right and wrong.
• The researchers must:
– Respect privacy and confidentiality of his research data
– Ensure safety of participants and minimize risk of harm
– Equitable selection
– All participants shall have the right to withdraw from
the study.
– Subjects should not be deceived
– An informed consent of parents is required for
participants defined as minors
 Ethics in Research
• Free from any form of coercion;
• Special care for vulnerable participants;
• Limitation of, and justification for, any deception;
• Appropriately qualified supervision;
• Avoidance of any conflict of interest;
• Respect for societies and cultures of participants;
• Freedom to publish the results of research, while
maintaining the anonymity of individuals.
 Research Title
• It gives a bird’ eye view of the research
• It serves as a framework of the research
report
• It should not be more than 13 words
• Avoid using phrases like, “ A Study of...”,
An Investigation on...”, An Analysis of...”,
etc
 Writing the Title of the Study
• The title embodies substantive words or
phrases that describe the research study.
• Research title must be clearly stated to serve
some purposes.
– It summarizes the content of the entire study.
– It is a frame of reference for the whole study.
– It enables you to claim the study as your own
– It helps other researchers to refer to your work as
they survey some theories themselves
 EXAMPLES
• Job opportunities and Training Programs for
Out-of-School Youths in Sta. Maria Community
• Motivational Factors, Collaborative Working
Environment and Academic Achievement
Among Grade Three Pupils
• Reading Comprehension Ability and Problem
Solving Performance in Mathematics Among
High School Students
 Parts of a
Research Paper
• Chapter I. The Problem
– A. Introduction
– B. Statement of the Problem
– C. Hypothesis
– D. Definition of Terms
– E. Significance of the Study
– F. Delimitation of the Study
• Chapter II. Review of Related Studies
– Related Literature and Studies
– Conceptual Framework
• Chapter III. Research Methodology
– Research Design
– Research locale
– Samples and Sampling Techniques
– Research Instruments
– Data Gathering Procedure
– Data Analysis Procedure
• Chapter IV. Presentation and
Interpretation of Data
– Results and Findings of the Study
• Chapter V. Summary, Conclusions and
Recommendations
– Summary
– Conclusions and Recommendations
 Chapter 1

Introduction to the Study

Chapter One is divided into five (5)
parts: (1) Background and Theoretical
Framework of the Study, (2) Statement
of the Problem and Hypotheses, (3)
Significance of the Study, (4) Definition
of Terms and (5) Delimitation of the
Study.
 Part One, Introduction to the Study
• Part One, Introduction to the Study
discusses the rationale for the choice of the
problem and the theoretical framework upon
which the study is anchored (include
paradigm if there is)
– Reasons for choosing the problem
– Justify the need for study
– Anchor your study to a theory
 Variables
• Variable – is a characteristic that has two or more
mutually exclusive property or value. Any characteristic
or quality that varies among the members of a particular
group.
• Independent variable – a factor which is the presumed
cause or antecedent of the dependent variable.
– is the variable that the researchers systematically
manipulate in the experiment. An independent
variable is measured, manipulated, or selected by the
experimenter to determine its relationship to an
observed phenomenon.
– Personal Variables, Teaching methods, Environmental variables
 Variables
• Dependent variable – a factor that is the presumed
effect or the outcome or the consequence of the
independent variable
– the factor which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable,
that is, that factor that appears, disappears, or
varies as the experimenter introduces, removes, or
varies the independent variable. The dependent
variable is the participant’s response. The
dependent variable is the outcome of experiment.
– Achievement, skills, performance, abilities
• If a scientist conducts an experiment to test
the theory that a vitamin could extend a
person’s life-expectancy, then:
• The independent variable is the amount of
vitamin that is given to the subjects within the
experiment. This is controlled by the
experimenting scientist. 
• The dependent variable, or the variable being
affected by the independent variable, is life
span. 
Learning Styles and Mathematics
Achievement in the Context of
Personalized Education Program
• Moderator variable – secondary independent
variable which help explain the relationship
between independent and dependent variable
• Extraneous variable – variables that can not be
observed but their effects can be deduced from the
interaction of the dependent variable.
– Size of class, gender of students/teachers, time of day,
length of class
• Predictor variable – antecedent variable
• Criterion variable – predicted variable
– NAT (predictor) – Success in College (Criterion variable)
Part Two, Statement of the Problem and the
Hypotheses
• Part Two, Statement of the Problem and the
Hypotheses, identifies the problems to be
answered by the research and the hypotheses
to be tested.
Problem- is a perceived difficulty; a feeling of
discomfort with the way things are; or a
discrepancy between someone believes “what
is” and “should be”.
 Criteria of a Researchable Problem
• Researcher’s area of interest
• At least two or more possible or plausible questions are
answered.
• Not answerable by a “yes” or “no”
• It must be novel or original
• Significance- practical and theoretical value of the problem
• Feasibility – can be investigated without expending an undue
amount of time, energy and money
• Availability of materials and human resources
• Can be finished within the alloted time
• Should not carry legal or moral impediments
• Ethical – does not involve physical or psychological harm
• Calmorin and Calmorin point out that the
investigator should know a problem is really
researchable when:
• There is a known solution to the problem.
• The solution can be answered by using
statistical methods and techniques
• There are probable solutions but they are not
yet tested.
• The occurrence of phenomena requires
scientific investigation to arrive at a precise
solution
 Sources of Problems for Research
• Personal experiences
• Existing problems in the Workplace
• Technological and Scientific Advancements
• Offshoot of Other Researchers
• Suggestion from colleagues, administrators,
teachers, etc.
• Professional journals, seminars, symposia,
conferences
 Types of Research Questions
1. Factor Naming Question – usually starts with
“What” and deals with exploratory
information.
Examples:
a. What is the general academic performance of
working students?
b. What are the parenting styles of single-
parent mothers:
2. Establishing Relationship Questions – used
after isolating the variables and relating them
with each other.
Examples:
a. What is the relationship bewteen IQ AND EQ
of the respondents?
b. What is the relationship between the work
performance evaluation and licensure exam
rating of teachers?
3. Situational and Relationship Questions –
variables are manipulated to see what will
happen
Examples:
a. What are the effects of virgin coconut oil to
cancer patients?
b. How will students perform in the Distance
Education System of schooling?
4. Situation-Generating Questions – those that
establish goals and require action plans,
program and the like
Examples:
a. What possible program can be developed to
improve the delivery of instruction in the
underdeveloped institutions.
b. What remediation can be done to address
the needs of slow learners.
 Levels of Questions
1. First level
– Questions that are explortory in nature
that usually begin with “what is”
– Utilizes descriptive type of research
– Statement of specific questions begins
with the analysis of respondents’ profile
like gender, socio-economic status,
religious affiliations, etc
2. Second Level
– dependent and independent variables are
required in order to determine the extent of
relationship between variables under study.
3. Third Level
– Questions that assume relationship or difference
between variables and asks why such relationship
or difference exists.
 EXAMPLES
• Problem: Students’ Emotional Intelligence and
Academic Performance
• First level
– What is the level of emotional intelligence of the students?
• Second Level
– What is the relationship of students’ emotional intelligence
to their academic performance?
• Third Level
– Is there a significant relationship between students’
academic performance and their level of emotional
intelligence?
Hypothesis
 Hypothesis
• Hypothesis – is a statement of existing or no
existing/ relationship or no relationship
– Non-directional (Null) – no direction, no significance, no
relationship
– Directional (Alternative) – states a direction
– certain cause-effect
• Non-directional: There is no significant difference
in the quiz scores of students who study early in
the morning and those who study at night.
• Directional: Quiz scores of students who study
early in the morning are higher than those who
study at night.
 Part Three, Significance of the Study

• Part Three, Significance of the Study,

explains the benefits that may be derived
from the results of the study.
– Discusses who will benefit and what
benefit will they get from the results of
the study
 Part Four, Definition of Terms
• Part Four, Definition of Terms, gives the
conceptual and operational meanings of the
important terms used in the study.
– Conceptual meaning – book meaning
(professional dictionary – sources)
– Operational meaning – how the term is used
in the study
– Arranged in alphabetical order based on the
terms from the title
 Examples
• Emotional intelligence – often measured as an
Emotional Intelligence Quotient (New Hampshire in
Roces, 2010) is the ability to process and use emotional
information accurately and efficiently ( Woolfolk, 2007).
• In this study, emotional intelligence refers to
students’ ability to perceive, control and evaluate
emotions. It is measured by the use Emotional
Intelligence Quotient (EIQ) Test which includes five areas
namely self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation,
empathy and handling relationships.
 Part Five, Delimitation of the Study

• Part Five, Delimitation of the Study, specifies

the scope and coverage of the investigation.
– Use of abstract guide
• Problem . Data gathering instrument
• Time of study . Data analysis procedure
• Place of study
• Participants
• Sampling procedures
• Research method used
• The study was limited in determining the influence of learning
environment, emotional intelligence quotient, and logical operations
skills to the performance of freshmen students’ performance in
College Algebra.
• The survey-correlational research design was employed in this study.
The respondents of the study were 217 randomly selected freshmen
students taking Math III (College Algebra ) during the first semester of
the academic year 2011- 2012 in Iloilo State College of Fisheries
System.
• The data gathering instruments were Learning Environment Inventory
for learning environment, Emotional Intelligence Quotient
Questionnaire for emotional intelligence quotient, Test in Logical
Operations for logical operations skills and College Algebra Test for
performance in College Algebra.
• Data gathered were analysed using percentage, means, standard
deviation, one-way analysis of variance and multiple regression. The .
05 alpha level was used as the criterion for the acceptance and
rejection of the null hypothesis.
 Chapter 2

• Review of Related Literature

– A summary of the writings of recognized authorities
and of previous research provides evidence that the
researcher is familiar with what is already known
and what is still unknown and untested.
– Arranged by topics and summarized and linked to
the present study
• Main topics – according to variable of interest
• Subtopics
– Conceptual and research literature should be
tangentially related
– Paraphrase
 Types of Sources
• General References are sources researchers
often refer to first. They tell where to look to
locate other sources.
– Indexes – which list the author, title and place of
publication of articles. Ex: Current Index to
Journals in Education
– Abstracts – give a brief summary of various
publications as well as their author, title and place
of publication. Ex: Psychological Abstracts
 Types of Sources
• Primary Sources – are publications in which
researchers report results of their studies.
Authors communicate their findings directly to
readers.
– Journals – Journal of Educational Research or
Journal of Research in Science Teaching
 Types of Sources
• Secondary Sources – refer to publications in
which authors describe the work of others.
– Textbooks
– Educational encyclopedias
– Research reviews
– Yearbooks
 What is Literature Review
• A literature review is an account of what has been
published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers.
• Its purpose is to convey what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic, and what
their strengths and weaknesses are.
• It is not just a descriptive list of the material
available, or a set of summaries.
• All sides of an argument must be clearly
explained, to avoid bias, and areas of agreement
and disagreement should be highlighted.
 How to Write a Literature Review
• Arrange headings in logical order to indicate
main points
• Avoid too long introduction to your main topic
• Include information that are directly related
and relevant to your topic
• A maximum of half page (double-space) must
constitute one paragraph
• Do not copy in toto the information from your
source. No more than 10% of the entire paper
is allowed for direct quotation
• Give due credits to the real source of your data. Cite
authors at the end of the sentence
• Paraphrase using your own words and style the data
gathered
• Summarize important points from your sources and
relate them to the topic
• Reinforce your data with selected figures or statistics
• Spice your writing with variety.
– Author A found out... Demonstrates, presented evidence
for, supported, observed, reported, examined, concluded
 Chapter 3

Research Design and Methodology

Chapter Three consists of five (5) parts: (1)
The Participants, (2) The research Design,
(3) Instrumentation, (4) Procedure, and (5)
Statistical Analysis.
 Part One, The Research Design

• Part One, Research Design, explains the

research design to be adopted in the
study.
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
1. SURVEY RESEARCH
• answer questions about the opinions of people
about some topic
• Surveys are used to gather extensive amounts of
information for large groups of individuals in short
time spans.
• Descriptive in nature - to describe the
characteristics of a population.
• Are classified in terms of how data are collected,
through self-report or observation: questionnaires,
telephone surveys, and interviews.
• Categorized in terms of cross-sectional or longitudinal.
Cross sectional research collects data at one point in
time whereas longitudinal research collects data at
more than one time in order to measure growth or
change
• Longitudinal studies
– involves collecting data at two or more instances in
order to measure changes over time
• Cross sectional studies
– involves collecting data from selected individuals in a
single time period although the time it takes to collect
the data may take a day to a few weeks or more.
Survey Designs Types:
• Public opinion 1. Questionnaire
• Attitudes Study
• Achievement 2. Interview Study
• Educational
• Governmental
• Industrial
• Political
 PROCESS
Questionnaire Study
Interview Study
• Stating the problem • Constructing the interview
guide
• Selecting the participants
• Pre-testing the interview
• Constructing the
procedure
questionnaire
• Communication during the
• Preparing the cover letter
interview
• Pretesting the questionnaire • Recording responses
• Follow-up activities
• Analyzing results
• Dealing with nonresponse
• Analyzing results
• MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE REQUIRED
– The subjects to be surveyed should be selected
(randomly, if possible) from the population of interest.
– According to Gay (in Zulueta & Costales, 2003), 20% of
the population is an acceptable sample size for a
descriptive research.
– Use Slovin’s Formula
• Examples
– Dimensions of effective school leadership: The Teacher’s
perspective
– Teachers perceptions of discipline problems in
secondary schools in Barotac Nuevo
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Involves collecting data to determine whether and
to what degree a relationship exists between two or
more variables. The degree of relationship is
expressed as a correlational coefficient.
• Describes an existing relationship between variables.
• Describes the degree to which two or more
variables are related.
• If a relationship exists between two variables, it
means that the scores on the variables vary in come
nonrandom, related way.
• The fact that there is a relationship between two
variables does not imply that one is the cause of
the other. Correlation does not describe causal
relationships. You cannot prove that one variable
causes another with correlational data.
• There is no manipulation of variables.
• If two variables are highly related, a correlation
near +1.00(or –1.00) will be obtained; if two
variables are not related, a coefficient near 0.00
will be obtained. The more highly related two
variables are, the more accurate are predictions
based on their relationships.
Interpretation of Correlation Coefficient

• 0.00 - ±0.20 negligible correlation

• ± 0.21 - ±0.40 low or slight relationship
• ±0.41 - ±0.70 marked or moderate correlation
• ± 0.71 - ±0.90 high relationship
• ± 0.91 - ±0.99 very high relationship
• ±1.00 perfect relationship
• Positive correlation – high scores on one
variable tend to be associated with high scores
on the other while low scores on one are
associated with low scores on the other.
• Negative correlation – high scores on one
variable are associated with low scores on the
other variable and low scores on one are
associated with high scores on the other.
TYPES
Relationship Studies
Prediction Studies

MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE REQUIRED

The minimum acceptable sample size is considered
by most researchers to be no less than 30. Data
obtained from a sample smaller than 30 may give
inaccurate estimate to the degree of relationships that
exist. Samples larger than 30 are much more likely to
provide meaningful results.
• Examples:
– Elementary school teachers’ attitudes towards
mathematics: The impact on students’ learning
skills.
– Mathematics anxiety, attitude and coping
mechanism: Their influence in the teaching
performance of pre-service teachers
– Affective factors and learning styles as predictors of
achievement in College Algebra
– Mathematics performance as influenced by
Mathematics anxiety and self-esteem among
Second year college students
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
3. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH or EX
POST FACTO RESEARCH
• The researcher attempts to determine the
cause, or reason, for existing differences in the
behavior or status of groups.
• Retrospective – it starts with an effect and
seeks its possible causes. A variation of the
basic approach is prospective – starting with a
cause and investigating its effect on some
variable.
• Casual-comparative involves two or
more groups and one independent
variable while correlational studies
involve two or more variables and one
group.
• In experimental research, the
independent variable, the alleged cause,
is manipulated, and in casual
comparative, no manipulation takes
place because it has already occurred.
• In experimental research, the researcher can
randomly form groups and manipulate the
independent variable while in casual-
comparative, the groups are already formed
and already divided on the independent
variable.
• Independent variables are variables that cannot
be manipulated (as socio-economic status),
should not be manipulated (as number of
cigarettes smoked per day), or are not
manipulated, though they could be (as method
of reading instruction)
Examples:
1. Personal, Social and Family Characteristics of
Drop-out Students
2. Gender differences in mathematics anxiety
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• It directly attempts to influence a particular
variable, and when properly applied, it is the
best type for testing hypotheses about cause-
and-effect relationships.
• The researcher manipulates at least one
independent variable, controls other relevant
variables, and observes the effect on one or
more dependent variables.
• The independent variable, also called the experimental
variable, the cause, or the treatment, is that process or
activity believed to make a difference in performance.
Examples of independent variables manipulated include
method of instructions, types of assignment, learning
materials, rewards given to students, and types of
questions asked by teachers.
• The dependent variable, also called the criterion variable,
effect, or posttest, is the outcome of the study, the
measure of the change or difference resulting from
manipulation of the independent variable. Dependent
variables frequently studied include achievement, interest
in a subject, attention span, motivation, and attitudes
toward school.
• Examples:
– Effects of Cooperative Learning among First
Students in College Algebra
– Constructivist approach in teaching mathematics
problem solving
– Use of instructional modules on selected topics in
study and thinking skills in English
 • TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
• QUASI-
EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
DESIGNS • WEAK
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Treatment Group R X1 O
• Control Group R O
The • Experimental and control groups are
Randomized
Posttest-
equated by random assignment.
Only • At the conclusion of the experimental
Control period the difference between the
Group mean test scores of the experimental
Design
and control groups is subjected to a
test of statistical significance, usually
a t-test or an analysis of variance.
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The Randomized Pretest-Posttest
Control Group Design

Treatment Group R O X1 O
Control Group R O X2 O
• Pretests are administered before the application of the
experimental and control treatments and posttest s at the end
of the treatment period.
• Gain scores may be compared and subjected to a test of the
significance of the difference between means. Pretest scores can
also be used in analysis of covariance to statistically control for
any differences between the groups at the beginning of the
study.
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Combines the pretest-
The Randomized
Solomon Four- posttest control group and
Group Design posttest- only control
group designs.
Treatment Group • The first two groups
R O X1 O represent the pretest-
Control Group posttest control group
R O X2 O
design, while the last two
Treatment Group
groups represent the
R X1 O
posttest-only control group
Control Group
R X2 O
design.
 TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Design permits the
The Randomized
Solomon Four- evaluation of the effects
Group Design of testing, history, and
maturation.
• Analysis of variance is
used to compare the four
posttest scores; analysis of
covariance may be used to
compare gains in posttests
of the pretested groups.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent-Group
Designs
• Treatment R O X1 O
• Control R O X2 O

The difference between the mean of the pretest

and posttest scores of the experimental group
and the difference between the mean of the
pretest and posttest scores of the control group,
respectively (mean-gain scores) are tested for
statistical significance.
Analysis of covariance may be used.
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Time Series Design
O1 O2 O 3 O 4 X O 5 O 6 O 7 O8
• An extensive amount of data is
collected on a single group.
• A measured change or gain from
observation 4 (O4) to observation5 (O5)
would indicate that the treatment had
an effect.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Counter-balanced Desisgn

• Group I X1 O X2 O X3 O
• Group II X2 O X3 O X1 O
• Group III X3 O X1 O X 2 O
• Group I receives treatment 1 and is posttested,
then receives treatment 2 and is posttested,
nad last receives treatment 3 and is posttested.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Counter-balanced Desisgn

• Group II receives treatment 2 first, then

treament 3, and then treatment 1, being
posttested after each treatment.
• Group III receives treatment 3 first, then
treatment 1, followed by treatment 2, also
being posttested after each treatment.
 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Counter-balanced Desisgn
• The order in which groups receive treatment
should be determined randomly.
• Compare the average scores for all groups on the
posttest for each treatment. The averaged
posttest scores for all groups for treatment 1 can
be compared with the averaged posttest score
for all groups for treatment 2, and so on, for
however many treatments there are.
WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

X O
Treatment Observation
(Dependent variable)

A single group is exposed to a treatment or

event, and a dependent variable is
subsequently observed (measured) in order to
assess the effect of the treatment.
 WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

O X O
Pretest Treatment Posttest
• A single group is measured or observed not only after
being exposed to a treatment of some sort, but also
before.
• The effects of the treatment are judged by the difference
between the pretest and the posttest scores.
• No comparison with a control group is provided.
 WEAK EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The Static-Group Comparison Design

X1 O
X2 O
• Compares the status of a group that has already
received an experimental treatment with one that
has not
• Two already existing, or intact groups are used.
• Comparisons are made between groups receiving
different treatments.
 Part Two, The Participants
• Part Two, The Participants, presents the
individuals who will participate in the study.
– Sampling – refers to the process of selecting the
individuals who will participate.
– Sample – any part of the population of individuals
whom information is obtained.
– Population- refers to all members of a particular
group.
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
 RANDOM SAMPLING
Sampling techniques – the process of selecting
individuals
• Simple random sampling – selected from a
population in such a manner that all members of
the population have equal chance of being selected.
– Lottery
– Fish bowl method
– Slovin’s Formula
n = N = 2900 = 352
1 + Ne2 1 + 2900 (.05)2
• A stratified random sampling – employed
when the population is composed of
several strata or subgroups.
– Simple stratified random sampling –
the desired sample size is drawn from
each subgroup where each subgroup is
selected randomly.
 – n = N = 2900 = 352
1 + Ne2 1 + 2900 (.05)2

N n
First year 1000 88
Second year 800 88
Third year 600 88
Fourth year 500 88
Total 2900 352
• Proportionate random sampling – a sample is
selected so that certain characteristics are
represented in the sample in the same
proportion as they occur in the population
– n = N = 2900 = 352
1 + Ne2 1 + 2900 (.05)2
N n

First year 1000 1000/ 2900 (352) 121

Second year 800 800/ 2900 (352) 97

Third year 600 600/2900 (352) 73

Fourth year 500 500/2900 (352) 61

• Cluster random sampling – is obtained by
using groups as the sampling unit rather than
individuals.
– A sample is chosen because it is difficult to sample
the entire population, e.g., choosing all members
of a particular class rather than individuals.
• Two stage random sampling – select groups
randomly and then chooses individuals
randomly from these groups.
• Multi-stage sampling method
• Tableof Random Numbers – a sample is obtained by
assigning numbers to each member of the population.
• Stratified/ proportionate random sampling – a
sample is selected so that certain
characteristics are represented in the sample
in the same proportion as they occur in the
population
– n = N = 2900 = 352
1 + Ne2 1 + 2900 (.05)2
N n

First year 1000 1000/ 2900 (352) 121

Second year 800 800/ 2900 (352) 97

Third year 600 600/2900 (352) 73

Fourth year 500 500/2900 (352) 61

• Cluster random sampling – is obtained by
using groups as the sampling unit rather than
individuals.
• Two stage random sampling – select groups
randomly and then chooses individuals
randomly from these groups.
• Table of random numbers – a table of
numbers listed and arranged in no particular
order, which is used to select random samples.
• Multi-stage sampling method
 Non Random Sampling
• Systematic sampling – a sample is obtained by
selecting every nth name of in a population
• Convenience sampling – any group of
individuals that is conveniently available to be
studied
• Purposive sampling – a sample is selected
because the individuals have special
qualifications of some sort, or because of prior
evidence of representativeness.
 Part Three, Instrumentation
• Part Three, Instrumentation, describes the
instruments used in gathering the data.
• Establish data gathering instruments
– Table of specifications
– Items
• Validity
• Reliability
– Pilot test
– How to interpret?
 Development of an Instrument
1. Become acquainted with common
approaches to measure the trait or behavior
of interest.
2. Write out specific objectives for your
instrument, with one objective for each trait
or behavior.
 Validity
• Validity – defined as referring to the
appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness
and usefulness of the specific inferences,
researches make based on the data they
collect.
• Validation – is the process of collecting and
analyzing evidence to support such inferences.
 Three Main Types
• Content-related evidence of validity – content
and format of the instrument
• Criterion-related evidence of validity – the
relationships between scores obtained using
one or more other instruments.
• Construct-related evidence of validity – the
nature of psychological construct or
characteristics being measured by the
instrument
 Reliability
• Reliability – refers to the consistency of the
scores obtained- how consistent they are for
each individual from one administration of an
instrument to another and from one set of
items to another.
 Methods
• Test retest method – involves administering the
same test twice to the same group after a
certain time interval has lapsed.
– Reliability coefficient - to indicate the relationship
between two sets of scores obtained.
• Equivalent forms method – two different but
equivalent (alternate or parallel) forms of an
instrument are administered to the same group
of individuals during the same period of time.
• Internal-consistency methods – estimating
the reliability that require only a single
administration of instrument.
1. Split-half method – involves scoring two
halves (odd vs even) of a test separately and
then calculating the correlation coefficient for
the two sets of scores.
– Reliability coefficient is calculated by using
Spearman Brown Prophecy Formula
– Reliability = 2 x reliability for ½ test
1 + reliability for ½ test
2. Kuder-Richardson Approaches
• KR 20 (items are not of equal difficulty) & KR
21 (all items are of equal difficulty)

• Where: K – number of items in the test

M – mean of the set of test scores
SD – standard deviation of the set of
scores
• Reliability be at least .70 or higher
3. Alpha coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) – used in
calculating the reliability of items that are not
scored right versus wrong, as in some essay
tests where more than one answer is possible
• Suppose that we measure a quantity which is
a sum of components (K-items or testlets): .
Cronbach's is defined as
 Part Four, Data Gathering Procedure

• Part Four, Data Gathering Procedure, explains

the procedure of collecting the data.
• Describes all the steps that will be followed in
conducting the study from beginning to end
• Begins with description of the strategy for
selecting the samples. If the study includes
test, the procedure and timing of it should be
described
 Part Five, Statistical Analysis
• Part Five, Statistical Analysis, presents the
statistical tools to be utilized in data
treatment.
• Description of the techniques that will be used
to analyze the data.
– Descriptive
– Inferential Statistics
 Descriptive Data Analysis
• Summarize and describe a group of numbers such as the
results of a research study
• Percentage .
Percentage will be used to find out the portion of the
respondents belonging to a particular category.
• Rank.
Rank will be used to establish hierarchy between the
different items of the questionnaire. It will be the basis in
deciding to which items were mostly agreed upon by the
respondent.
• Frequency.
It will be used to determine how often a particular item
was chosen by the respondents.
 Descriptive Data Analysis
• Measures of Central Tendecy
– Means
The obtained mean scores from the research
instruments will be utilized to describe the
variables.
• Measures of Dispersion/ Variability
– Standard deviation.
The standard deviation will be used to determine
the dispersion of the scores from the means.
• Graphs/ Charts
 Inferential Data Analysis
• A hypothesis test or test of statistical significance typically
has a level of significance attached to it. This level of
significance is a number that is typically denoted with the
Greek letter alpha. One question that comes up in statistics
class is, “What value of alpha should be used for our
hypothesis tests?”
• Decisions:
– Set your level of significance (α) at .05.
• ρ < .o5
– Reject the null hypothesis
• ρ > .o5
– Accept the null hypothesis
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Difference)
• t-test for dependent samples. The t-test will be
used to determine the significant difference
between the same groups.
– Between pre test and post test.

• Used to compare two sets of scores where there

are two scores for each person
– Repeated-measures
– Within-subjects
– Paired
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Difference)
• t-test for independent samples. The t-test will
be used to determine the significant
difference between different groups.
• Two groups of scores come from two entirely
different groups of people
• Between male and female.
• Between older and younger.
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Difference)
• One-Way Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA).
– To determine the significance of differences between
three groups/ levels.
• Between Highest Educational Attainment:
– Bachelor
– Masteral
– Doctoral
• Two-way Analysis of Variance
– Differences and interations
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Relationships)
• Pearson-Product-Moment Coefficient of
Correlation (Pearson r)..
• Gives an indication of both direction (positive
or negative) and the strength of relationship.
• To ascertain the significance of relationship
between variables, the Pearson r will be
employed
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Relationships)
• Multiple Regression
– Used to explore the predictive ability of a
set of independent variables on one
continuous dependent measure.
– Compare the predictive ability of a
particular independent variables and to find
the best set of variables to predict an
independent variable.
 Inferential Data Analysis
(Relationships)
• Factor Analysis
– Allows to condense a larger set of variables
or scale items down to a smaller, more
manageable number of dimensions or
factors.
 Chapter 4

• Results and Discussions

• This chapter is divided into two parts: (1)
Descriptive Data Analysis and (2) Inferential
Data Analysis.
• Deeper analysis be done to include
interpretation of the results and also studies
that contradict/ support research findings.
• Part One, Descriptive Data Analysis, presents
the descriptive data and their respective
analyses and interpretations.
• Part Two, Inferential Data Analysis, presents
the inferential data and their respective
analyses and interpretations.
Part One, Descriptive Data Analysis
• T-test results revealed that teaching
performance do not significantly differ when
teachers were grouped according to gender
t(30) = -.147, p = .884
• Significant difference existed when they are
grouped according to highest degree earned
F(2, 29) = 5.720, p = .008 as indicated in
ANOVA results
• Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation
results revealed that there is significant and positive
relationship between teachers’ emotional intelligence
and teaching performance r = .430, p = .014.
 Presenting the Results
• Present Relevant Data
• Present Results in an Orderly, Logical Way
• Order and Sequence the Results
– Present results in order of importance
– Present data along with relevant statistical analyses
• Include Relevant Information
– For each analysis, the name of the statistic and its particulars
may be included.
– Include important statistical values (F, t and p) for all significant
effects
– Some will want to include this information for non-significant
effects as well
 Presenting the Results
• Word your Results Clearly
– Not time to be creative or to look for the most
prose worthy way of saying things.
– Be monotonously repetitive
• Follow Convention Concerning the
Presentation of Statistics
 Presenting the Results
• Follow Conventions Concerning the Preparation
of Tables
– Tables should appear in the text as near as to where
they are described
– Allow sufficient space between entries, line up
columns of numbers on decimal points, and avoid
splitting tables across pages
– Tables be presented vertically rather than in
landscape fashion
• Follow Conventions Regarding Preparation of
Figures
 Parts of a Research Paper
• Preliminary Pages
– Title page – 10-12 words all capital letters
– Acknowledgment
– Abstract
– Table of Contents
– List of Tables
– List of Figures
– List of Appendices
 Parts of a Research Paper
• Abstract
– Problem
– Time/ Place of Study
– Participants
– Sampling Procedures
– Research Method used
– Data gathering instrument
– Data analysis procedure
– Results and some conclusions and recommendations