ME 331

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

M Asfandyar

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 1

HVAC Load Estimation

Solar Radiation

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 2

 HVAC Load Calculation
Introduction

 An HVAC Load Calculation is mathematical process for measuring several aspects of a

building in order to determine the best size, application and style of HVAC system.

 The purpose is to ensure energy efficiency while also maximizing comfort.

 Load calculation have been completed for several years, however with new
technology come quicker and more consistent methods to complete this important
step.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 3

 HVAC Load Calculation
Introduction

Factors to consider during cooling load requirement

 It is important to know while designing an air conditioning system about the

heat sources and their nature before implementing the actual practice.

 Building detailed layout

 Building orientation
 Ambient condition
 Use of space
 Physical dimension of space
 Indoor design condition
 Glass area exposed to sun
 Occupancy
 Lightning load
 Equipment load
 Fresh air requirement.
 Infiltration of outside air

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 4

 HVAC Load Calculation
Introduction
Application of HVAC system

 Residential

 Commercial

 Industrial

 Educational

 Pharmaceutical

 Hospital

 Malls/Offices

 And many more…

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 5
 AC Load Estimate
Introduction

 The air conditioning load is to provide the basis of selecting the

conditioning equipment.
 The system is designed for maximum conditions of heat such as:

 Peak month
 Peak day
 Peak time of the year

The design load is divided into two types

 Outdoor load

 Indoor load

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 6

 AC Load Estimate
Introduction

Outdoor Load
 Heat flow through the exterior wall, ceilings, floors, windows and doors
due to temperature difference between two sides.
 Load due to Solar Radiation
 Heat from the Sun absorbed by the wall and roof and later transferred
to room by conduction
 Heat transmitted directly by radiation through glass of window.
 Heat received from infiltration air through window and doors due to
frequent openings.

Indoor Load

 People
 Light
 Appliances
 Miscellaneous…

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 7

 Space Heat Gain
 The rate at which heat is transferred to and/or generated in a space at a given
time.
• The mode
 Classified by in which it enters the space and
• whether it is a sensible or latent gain. External
Sources
Mode of entry. The modes of heat gain may be as
(1) solar radiation through transparent surfaces;
(2) heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs; Internal
(3) Energy transfer as a result of ventilation and infiltration;
Sources
(4) heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, and appliances;
(5) miscellaneous heat gains.

Sensible or latent heat.

• Sensible heat gain is directly added to the conditioned space by
conduction, convection, and/or radiation.
• Latent heat gain occurs when moisture is added to the space (e.g., from
vapor emitted by occupants and equipment).

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 8

 Cooling Load Components

partition
roof wall

lights
people
infiltration
glass solar equipment

glass

conduction

ext
erior floor
wall

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 9

 Solar Radiation
 Solar forms the greatest single factor of cooling in buildings. It is, therefore,
necessary to study the subject not only for the purpose of load calculation , but also
from the point of view of load reduction.
 In present day world the subject has acquired new dimension in the context of solar
energy utilization for heating as we as cooling.

1. Location on the earth’s

surface
2. Time of the day
3. Day of the year.

 These three quantities are

specified by the latitude, the hour
angle and the sun's declination.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 10

 Solar Radiation
Longitude and Latitude

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 11

 Solar Radiation
Solar constant:
 This is the flux of solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun’s rays beyond the earth’s
atmosphere at the mean earth-sun distance.
 The currently accepted value of solar constant is 1370 W/m2.
 Since the earth’s orbit is slightly elliptical, the extra-terrestrial radiant flux varies from a
maximum of 1418 W/m2 on January 3rd to a minimum of 1325 W/m2 on July 4th

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 12

 Solar Radiation
Air Mass, m:
 In passing through the earth’s atmosphere, which consists of dust particles, various gas
molecules and water vapour, the solar radiation gets depleted due to reflection,
scattering and absorption.
 The extent of this depletion at any given time depends on the atmospheric composition
and length of travel of sun’s rays through the atmosphere.
 The length of travel is expressed in terms of ‘air mass, m or L which is defined as the
ratio of mass of atmosphere in the actual sun-earth path to that which would exist if
the sun were directly overhead at sea level.

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° 1
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚 = = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 ′ 𝑃 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽

𝛽 is called altitude angle

which depends on the location, time of the day and
day of the year. Sea level

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 13

 Solar Radiation
Total solar irradiation:
 In order to calculate the building heat gain due to solar radiation, one has to know the
amount of solar radiation incident on various surfaces of the building.
 The rate at which solar radiation is striking a surface per unit area of the surface is
called as the total solar irradiation on the surface. This is given by:

𝐼𝑖𝜃 = 𝐼𝐷𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼𝑑𝜃 + 𝐼𝑟𝜃

Where 𝐼𝑖𝜃 = Total solar irradiation of a surface, W/m2
𝐼𝐷𝑁= Direct radiation from sun, W/m2
𝐼 𝑑 𝜃 = Diffuse radiation from sky, W/m2
𝐼 𝑟 𝜃 = Short wave radiation reflected from other surfaces,
W/m2 θ = Angle of incidence, degrees

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 14

 Solar Radiation
Solar geometry:

The angle of incidence θ depends upon

i. Location on earth
ii. Time of the day
iii. Day of the year

 The above three parameters are defined

in terms of latitude, hour angle and
declination, respectively.

 The planet earth makes one rotation

about its axis every 24 hours and one
revolution about the sun in a period
of about 365 days.

 The earth’s equatorial plane is tilted at

an angle of about 23.5º with respect to
its orbital plane, responsible for change
of seasons.
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 15
 Solar Radiation
Fundamental Earth-sun angles:
The position of any point on the earth’s surface, in relation to the sun’s rays, is described at
any instant by these angles.

Latitude, 𝒍: It is the angle between the

lines joining O and P and the
projection of OP on the equatorial
plane, i.e.

Thus the latitude along with the

longitude indicates the position of
any point on earth and it varies from
0º at equator to 90º at the poles.
Hour angle, h: It is the angle between
the projection of OP on the equatorial
 The hour angle is a measure of the time of
plane i.e., the line OA and the
the day with respect to solar noon.
projection of the line joining the center
 The hour angle is 0o at solar noon and varies
of the earth to the center of the sun, i.e.,
from 0o to 360o in one rotation.
the line OB. Therefore,

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 16

 Solar Radiation
Declination, d:
The declination is the angle between
the line joining the center of the earth
and sun and its projection on the
equatorial plane, the angle between
line OO’ and line OB;

For northern hemisphere, the declination varies from about +23.5º on June
21st (summer solstice) to -23.5º on December 21st (winter solstice).
At equinoxes, i-e on March 21st and September 21st the declination is 0º for
northern
hemisphere.
On any particular day the declination can be calculated approximately as
follow:

where N is the day of the year numbered from January 1st.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 17

 Solar Radiation
Solar Time:

 Solar radiation calculation such as the hour angle are based on local solar time
(LST), it the time shown by a sun dial.
 A civil day is exactly equal to 24 hours, whereas a solar day is approximately equal
to 24 hours.
 This variation is called as Equation of Time (EOT) and is available as average
values for different months of the year.
 The actual official time in a locality may be different from the civil time. It may be
based on the mean longitude of a country. This time is called the central standard
time (CST).
𝐿𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝐶𝑇 + 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐸𝑂𝑇) 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Try: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wGFJd3j3ds

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 18

 Solar Radiation
Example: Solar Time
Determine the local solar time corresponding to 10:00 a.m. central
standard time of February 8 for a location at 95ºW longitude. The central
standard time is equal to the local civil time at 90ºW longitude.

Solution:
The difference in time at the two longitudes

∆𝜏 = 4(95º − 90º) = 4(5º)= 20 min

Thus at 95ºW longitude the CST is, 9:40 a.m.

From table 17.5 or using equation, the EOT on Feb 8, is -14 min

𝐿𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝐶𝑇 + 𝐸𝑂𝑇

Local Solar time is:

𝐿𝑆𝑇 = 09: 40 − 00: 14 = 9: 26 𝑎. 𝑚

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 19

 Solar Radiation
Derived solar angles:
Some other angles used in solar radiation calculations which can be derived in terms of the
fundamental angles are the sun’s altitude angle (β), zenith angle (ψ), and azimuth angle
(𝛾).

Altitude angle, β: It is the angle

between the sun’s rays and the
projection of sun’s rays onto a
horizontal plane ∅
γ

𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1[cos 𝑙 . cos( ℎ) . cos 𝑑

+ sin 𝑙 . sin 𝑑 ]

The altitude angle β is maximum at solar noon. Since the hour angle, h is 0o at solar noon,
the maximum altitude angle 𝛽 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 (solar noon) on any particularly for any particular
location is given by:

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 20

 Solar Radiation
Derived solar angles:
Some other angles used in solar radiation calculations which can be derived in terms of the
fundamental angles are the sun’s altitude angle (β), zenith angle (ψ), and azimuth angle
(𝛾).
The equation for altitude angle can
also be used for finding the time of
sunrise, sunset and sunshine hours
as the altitude angle is 0º at both ∅
sunrise and sunset. Thus for sunrise γ
and sunset

ℎ𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1[− tan 𝑙 .

tan( 𝑑)]

From the hour angle one can calculate the sunrise, sunset and total
sunshine hours as the sunrise and sunset are symmetrical about the solar
noon.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 21

 Solar Radiation
Derived solar angles:
Some other angles used in solar radiation calculations which can be derived in terms of the
fundamental angles are the sun’s altitude angle (β), zenith angle (ψ), and azimuth angle
(𝛾).

Zenith angle,ψ: It is the angle

between sun’s rays and the surface
normal to the horizontal plane at ∅
the position of the observer. γ

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 22

 Solar Radiation
Derived solar angles:
Some other angles used in solar radiation calculations which can be derived in terms of the
fundamental angles are the sun’s altitude angle (β), zenith angle (ψ), and azimuth angle
(𝛾).

Solar Azimuth angle, 𝜸: It is the

angle in the horizontal plane
measured from the north (in some ∅
books from south) to the horizontal γ
projection of the sun’s rays. It is
given by:

At solar noon when the hour angle is zero, the solar azimuth angle is equal
to 180º, if the latitude, l is greater than declination, d, and it is equal to 0º if
l<d. The solar azimuth angle at solar noon is not defined for l=d.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 23

 Solar Radiation
Example: (a) Find out the sun’s altitude and solar azimuth angle at 3 p.m. solar time on
August 1 for a location at 30º N latitude.
(b)Also, find the maximum altitude angle, sunshine hours and solar azimuth angles at
sunrise and sunset.
(c) Determine the solar radiation intensity normal to the sun’s ray at 3 p.m
N
Solution:
360(284 + 𝑁)
𝑑 = 23.47𝑠𝑖𝑛 264°
365 E
W
𝑑 = 18.2° sun
84°

(a) At 3 ℎ = 45°
p.m S
𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1[cos 𝑙 . cos( ℎ) . cos 𝑑 + sin 𝑙 . sin 𝑑 ]
𝛽 = 47.55°
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑.
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ = 84° [𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑊𝑒𝑠𝑡]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝛾 = 264° [𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒]
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 24
 Solar Radiation
(b) Maximum altitude angle:
𝛽 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝜋− (𝑙 −
2
𝑑)

𝛽 𝑚 𝑎 𝑥 = 78.2°
Hour angle at sunset

ℎ𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠−1[− tan 𝑙

. tan( 𝑑)]

𝜏 = 100.9° ℎ𝑜 =hours
= 6.73 100.9°
after solar noon
15
Time at sunset
Sunshine hours

∆𝜏 = 6.73 + 6.73 = 13.46 ℎ𝑟𝑠

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 25

 Solar Radiation

Solar Azimuth angle at sunset

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ0
𝛾 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = 68.8° [𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑒𝑠𝑡]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
Solar Azimuth angle at sunrise
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ0
𝛾= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 = −68.8° [𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
−
(c) Normal solar radiation intensity at 3 p.m
N
𝐵
−
𝐼𝐷𝑁 = 𝐴. 𝑒 𝑠𝑖 𝑛
(covered in the following −68° sunrise
𝛽 sunset 68°
slides)
Where A = 1082 and 𝐵 = −0.21 W E
sun

𝐼𝐷𝑁 = 814 𝑊/𝑚 2

S
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 26
 Solar Radiation
Incident angle of sun’s rays, 𝜽
The incident angle of sun’s rays 𝜃, is the angle between sun’s rays and the normal to the
surface under consideration. The angle of incidence depends on the solar geometry and
also orientation of the surface

For horizontal surfaces: For

horizontal surfaces the angle of
incidence 𝜃 ℎ𝑜 𝑟 is equal to the zenith
angle, ψ, i.e.,

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 27

 Solar Radiation
Incident angle of sun’s rays, 𝜽
The incident angle of sun’s rays 𝜃, is the angle between sun’s rays and the normal to the
surface under consideration. The angle of incidence depends on the solar geometry and
also orientation of the surface

For vertical surfaces: An arbitrarily

orientated vertical surface (shaded) that is
exposed to solar radiation. The angle of
incidence of solar radiation on the
vertical surface depends upon the
orientation of the wall, i-e, east facing
etc, west facing etc.
Additional angle has to be defined to find
the angle of incidence on the vertical
walls.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 28

 Solar Radiation
Incident angle of sun’s rays, 𝜽
The incident angle of sun’s rays 𝜃, is the angle between sun’s rays and the normal to the
surface under consideration. The angle of incidence depends on the solar geometry and
also orientation of the surface

Wall solar azimuth angle 𝜶: This is the

angle between normal to the wall and the
projection of sun’s rays on to a
horizontal plane.
Surface azimuth angle ξ : This is the
angle between the normal to the wall and
south. Thus when the wall is facing south,
then the surface azimuth angle is zero
and when it faces west, then the surface
azimuth angle is 90o and so on.
The angle is taken as +ve if the normal The factor F is -1 for forenoon and +1 for afternoon.
to the surface is to the west of south and
–ve if it is to the east of south.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 29

 Solar Radiation
Incident angle of sun’s rays, 𝜽
For an arbitrarily oriented surfaces: For any
surface that is tilted at an angle Σ from the
horizontal, the incident angle θ is given by:

This equation is a general equation and can

be used for any arbitrarily oriented surface.

For example, for a horizontal surface, Σ is 0º,

hence θ ℎ𝑜 𝑟 is equal to (90- β), as shown
earlier.

Similarly, for a vertical surface, Σ is 90º, hence

θ𝑣 𝑒 𝑟 is equal to cos-1(cos β.cos α)

http://www.solarelectricityhandbook.com/sol
ar-angle-calculator.html Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 30
 Solar Radiation
Direct radiation from sun 𝑰𝑫𝑵:
Several solar radiation models are available for calculation of direct radiation from
sun. One of the commonly used models for air conditioning calculation is the one
suggested by ASHRAE. According to this model, the direct radiation 𝐼𝐷𝑁 is given by:

where A is the apparent solar irradiation which is taken as 1230 W/m2 for the months
of December and January and 1080 W/m2 for mid-summer.
Constant B is called as atmospheric extinction coefficient, which takes a value of
0.14 in winter and 0.21 in summer. The value of A and B for 21st day of each month
have been computed are available either in the form of tables or empirical equations.
The other equation used for the same purpose is:
𝐼𝑛 = 1082𝑒−0.182𝐿 𝑤/𝑚2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐿 = 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 31

 Solar Radiation

Diffuse radiation from sky, 𝑰 𝒅 :

According to the ASHRAE model, the diffuse radiation from a cloudless sky is
given by:

The value of C is assumed to be constant for a cloudless sky for an average day of a month.
Its average monthly value have been computed and are available in tabular form. The value
of C can be taken as 0.135 for mid-summer and as 0.058 for winter. The factor 𝐹𝑤𝑠is called as
view factor or configuration factor and is equal to the fraction of the diffuse radiation that is
incident on the surface.
For diffuse radiation, 𝐹𝑤𝑠 is a function of the orientation of the surface only. It can be
easily shown that this is equal to:

where Σ is the tilt angle. Obviously for horizontal surfaces (Σ = 0º) the factor 𝐹𝑤𝑠 is equal
to 1, whereas it is equal to 0.5 for a vertical surface (Σ = 90º). The above model is strictly
true for a cloudless sky only as it assumes that the diffuse radiation from the sky falls
uniformly on the surface. The diffuse radiation will not be uniform when the sky is cloudy.
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 32
 Solar Radiation
Reflected, short-wave (solar) radiation, 𝑰𝒓 :

The amount of solar radiation reflected from the ground onto a surface is given by:

where ρ𝑔 is the reflectivity of the ground or a horizontal surface from where the solar radiation
is reflected on to a given surface and 𝐹𝑊𝐺 is view factor from ground to the surface. The value
of reflectivity obviously depends on the surface property of the ground. The value of the
angle factor 𝐹𝑊𝐺 in terms of the angle is given below

Thus for horizontal surfaces (Σ = 0o) the factor FWG is equal to 0, whereas it
is equal to 0.5 for a vertical surface (Σ = 90o).

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 33

 Solar Radiation
Example: Calculate the direct and diffused sky radiation intensities on a roof with a
30º angles of tilt to the horizontal facing south-east at 3 p.m solar time on July 21 at a
location of 30ºN latitude.

Solution: 𝑙 = 30°
ℎ = 45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑.
𝛾= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ = 87°[𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑒𝑠𝑡]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
Σ = 30°

Table 17.5 or equation give:

N
𝑑 = 20.3°
𝛽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1[cos 𝑙 . cos( ℎ) .
cos 𝑑
+ sin 𝑙 . W E
𝛽 = sin
48.4°
𝑑] sun
87°
1 45°
𝑚=𝐿 = = 1.3365
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 132°

−0.182
S
𝐼𝐷𝑁 = 1082. 𝑒 = 848 𝑊/𝑚 2

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 34

 Solar Radiation

𝜃 = 64.8°
Coefficient of for the sky radiation from Table
Direct solar radiation intensity
𝐶 = 0.136
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐼𝐷 = 848cos(64.8°) Diffuse sky radiation intensity

𝐼𝐷 = 361 𝑊/𝑚 2
Angle factor between the surface and the ground
𝐼𝑑 = 108 𝑊/𝑚 2
Reflect sky radiation intensity
𝐹𝑊𝐺 = 0.067 Lets say the reflectivity of the
ground is 𝜌𝑔 = 0.6
Angle factor between the surface and the sky

𝐼𝑟 = 848 + 108 0.6 0.067

𝐹𝑊𝑠 = 0.935 𝐼𝑟 = 38.42 𝑊/𝑚 2
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 35
 Solar Radiation
Total incident radiation

𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑟

𝐼𝑡 = 361 + 108 + 38.4

𝐼𝑡 = 507.4 𝑊/𝑚2
Contribution:
Direction radiation contribution is
71% Diffused contribution is 21.3 %
Reflected contribution is 7.57%
Sun Position Calculator:
http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/properties-of-su
nlight/sun-position-calculator

Mechanism of Seasons: https://www.youtu

be.com/watch?v=WLRA87TKXLM Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 36
 Reading Assignment

 Introduction
 Function and schematics
 Advantages and disadvantages of the following refrigeration/AC systems

1. Desiccant Cooling
2. Evaporative Cooling
3. Hydronic Radiant Air Conditioning
4. Thermal Storage Air Conditioning
5. Thermoelectic Refrigeration
6. Vortex Tube Refrigeration

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 37

HVAC Load Estimation

Solar Heat Gain

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 38

 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:

It referrs to any transparent apertures in a building, such as glass doors, windows,

skylights etc. A careful design of fenestration can reduce the building energy
consumption considerably. It provides:

a) Daylight, heat and outside air

b) Visual communication to the outside world
c) Aesthetics, and
d) Escape route in case of fires in low-rise buildings

Opaque surfaces → Absorption and Reflection

Transparent surfaces → Absorption, Reflection and Transmission

Transmission depends on the surface characteristic, orientation, weather and

solar radiation conditions.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 39

 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:
Sun
4%
The properties of this glass for
solar radiation are: 100% 12% Heat
transferred by
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 → 𝜏 = 0.8
convection
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 → 𝛼 = 0.12

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 → 𝜌 = 0.08 Indoor

Outdoor

40 – 85 % → transmitted 80%
8%
5 – 50 % → absorbed
5 – 10 % → reflected.
8%
Of the 12% absorbed by the glass: Clear plastic glass
4% transferred to the indoors by convection
8% is lost to the outdoors by convection
and radiation.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 40

 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:

Assuming the transitivity and absorptivity of the surface

same for direct, diffuse and reflected components of
solar radiation, the amount of solar radiation passing
through a transparent surface can be written as:

where:
A = Area of the surface exposed to radiation
𝐼𝑡 = Total radiation incident on the surface
τ = Transitivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected radiations
α = Absorptivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected radiations
N = Fraction of absorbed radiation transferred to the indoors by
conduction and convection

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient,

1 1 ∆𝑥 1
Where ℎ𝑖 and ℎ𝑜 are the internal and external heat transfer coefficients.
= + +
𝑈 ℎ 𝑖 𝑘𝑔 ℎ 𝑜 ∆𝑥 and 𝑘𝑔 are the glass thickness and conductivity

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 41

 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:

The term in square brackets for a single sheet, clear

window glass is called as Solar Heat Gain Factor
(SHGF), i.e.,

The maximum SHGF values for different latitudes, months and

orientations have been obtained and are available in the form
of Tables in ASHRAE handbooks.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 42

 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:
Similar tables are available for other latitudes also in ASHRAE
Handbooks.

Maximum SHGF factor for sunlit glass located at 32oN (W/m2)

The first column in the table gives the maximum SHGF values of a north facing glass or
a glass shaded from solar radiation and oriented in any direction.
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 43
 Solar Heat
Gain
Solar radiation through fenestration:
For fenestrations other than the reference SS glass, a Shading Coefficient (SC) is
defined such that the heat transfer due to solar radiation is given by:

The shading coefficient

(SC) depends upon the type
of the glass and the type of
internal shading devices.
ASHRAE Fundamentals
shows typical values of
shading coefficients.

Shading coefficients for different types of glass and internal shading

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 44
 Solar Heat
Effect of external shading: Gain
 The external shading reduces the area of the window exposed to solar radiation, and
thereby reduces the heat transmission into the building.
 A very common method of providing external shading is to use overhangs.
 By proper design of the overhangs it is possible to block the solar radiation
during summer and allow it into the building during winter.

An inset window of height H,

width W and depth d.

Without overhang, the area exposed

to solar radiation is 𝐻 × 𝑊,
however, with overhang the area
exposed is only 𝑥 × 𝑦.

The hatched portion in the figure

shows the area that is under shade,
and hence is not experiencing any
direct solar radiation.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 45

 Solar Heat
Effect of external shading: Gain
Thus the solar radiation transmitted into the building with overhang is given
by:

The un-shaded area can be calculated as

follow:

where β is the altitude angle and

α is the wall solar azimuth angle.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 46

 Solar Heat
Gain
Estimation of minimum outdoor air required for ventilation:
 Ventilation is one of the major contributors to total cooling and heating load on the
system.
 The minimum amount of air required for breathing purposes is small (about 0.2 litres
per second per person).
 Standards for minimum ventilation requirements have been formulated.
 For example, ASHRAE standard 62-1989 provides a guideline for minimum
ventilation requirements.

Typical outdoor air requirements for ventilation

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 47
 Solar Heat
Infiltration: Gain
 Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated, outdoor air
directly into the conditioned space.
 Infiltration is due to the;
 Wind effect (the entry of outdoor air due to the pressure difference developed across
the building) and
 Stack effect (the entry of outdoor air due to buoyancy effects caused by temperature
difference between the indoor and outdoors).
 Some of the means employed to control infiltration include use of vestibules or
revolving doors, use of air curtains, building pressurization and sealing of windows
and doors.
 Several methods have been proposed to estimate the amount of infiltration air.
Sometimes, based on type of construction, buildings are classified into loose,
average or tight, and infiltration is specified in terms of number of air changes
per hour (ACH).
 One ACH is equal to the airflow rate equal to the internal volume of the
occupied space per hour.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 48

 Solar Heat
Gain
Heating and cooling loads due to ventilation and infiltration:
Due to ventilation and infiltration, buildings gain energy in summer and loose energy
in winter. The energy gained or lost consists of both sensible and latent parts.

The sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, 𝑄𝑠,𝑣𝑖 is given by:

OR 𝑄𝑠 ≅ 1.23 𝑉 Δ𝑇

The latent heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, 𝑄𝑙,𝑣𝑖 is given by:

Or 𝑄 𝑙 ≅ 3010 𝑉 Δ𝜔
Where
• 𝑚 𝑜 and 𝑉𝑜are the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rates of outdoor air due to
ventilation and infiltration,
• 𝑐 𝑃 .𝑚 is the average specific heat of moist air,
• ℎ𝑓𝑔 is the latent heat of vaporization of water,
• 𝑇𝑜and 𝑇𝑖are the outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures
• 𝑊𝑜and 𝑊𝑖are the outdoor and indoor
Refrigeration humidity ratios.
& Air Conditioning 49
 Solar Heat
Example: Gain
A large air conditioned building with a total internal volume of 1,00,000 m3 is maintained at
25oC (DBT) and 50% RH, while the outside conditions are 35oC and 45% RH. It has a design
occupancy of 10,000 people, all non-smoking. The infiltration rate through the building is
equal to 1.0 ACH. Estimate the heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration. Assume
the barometric pressure to be 1 atm.

Solution:

From Psychrometric chart:

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 50

 Solar Heat
Example: Gain
Heat transfer due to ventilation:
From the Table assume a ventilation requirement of 3.5 l/s/person. Hence the total OD air
required is:

𝑉𝑜,𝑣= 3.5 x 10,000 = 35000 l/s = 35 m3/s

𝑚 𝑜,𝑣 = 35 /0.89519 = 39.1 kg/s

Sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation is given
by:
𝑄𝑠,𝑣 = 𝑚 𝑜,𝑣 𝑐 𝑃 .𝑚 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡 𝑖 ) = 39.1 x
1.0216 x (35 – 25) = 399.5 kW

Latent heat transfer rate due to

ventilation is given by:
𝑄𝑙,𝑣 = 𝑚𝑜,𝑣ℎ𝑓𝑔(𝑊𝑜 − 𝑊𝑖) = 39.1 x
2501 x (0.01594 – 0.0093) = 649.3 kW

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 51

 Solar Heat
Example: Gain
Heat transfer due to infiltration:

Infiltration rate, 𝑉𝑜,𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 1 ACH = 1,00,000/3600 = 27.78 m3/s

𝑚 𝑜 ,𝑖 𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜,𝑖𝑛𝑓 /𝑣𝑎 = 27.78/0.89519 = 31 kg/s

Sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation is given by:

𝑄 𝑠,𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑚 𝑜,𝑣 𝑐 𝑃.𝑚 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡 𝑖 ) = 31 x 1.0216 x
(35 – 25) = 316.7 kW

Latent heat transfer rate due to ventilation is

given by:
𝑄 𝑙 ,𝑖 𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑜,𝑣ℎ𝑓𝑔(𝑊𝑜 − 𝑊𝑖) = 31 x 2501 x
(0.01594 – 0.0093) = 514.8 kW

Hence total heat transfer rate

due to ventilation is:
𝑄 𝑡,𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑄 𝑠,𝑖𝑛𝑓 + 𝑄 𝑙,𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 831.5
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 52
kW
 Heat Transfer Through
Buildings
Fabric Heat Gain/Loss
 After the solar and transmission heat gain through glass, the most important heat gain
or loss to be considered in the air conditioning of buildings is the heat transfer
through the building structure (walls, roof, floor etc.), known as fabric heat gain.

 The conduction heat transfer through the wall or roof will depend on the
thickness and thermal conductivity of the material used.
 In addition there will be convection and radiation from both the outside and
inside surfaces.

For precise analysis, following parameters should be considered:

a) Geometrically complex structure of the walls, roofs etc.

b) Continuously varying outdoor conditions
c) Variable indoor conditions

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 53

 Heat Transfer Through
Buildings
Fabric Heat Gain/Loss
Important Points:

 For cooling and heating load calculations, the indoor conditions are generally
assumed to be constant to simplify the analysis.
 The variation in outdoor conditions for a realistic cooling loads during summer has
to be considered due to solar radiation and ambient temperature.
 In winter, the heating load calculations are based on peak or near-peak conditions,
(early morning).
 In conventional heating load calculations, the effects of solar radiation and
ambient temperature variation are not considered and the heat transfer is assumed
to be steady.
 However by this steady state method, the calculated heating capacity will be
more than required.
 Thus for higher accuracy, it is essential to consider the transient heat transfer effects
during winter also.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 54

 Solar Heat
Gain
Heat Flux on the sunlit surface
4%
Heat
transferred by
convection

Outdoor Indoor
𝛼 → Absorptivity coefficient
𝐼𝑡 → Total incident solar radiation (W/𝑚2) Conducted
ℎ𝑜 → Heat transfer coefficient
𝑇𝑜→ Outside air temp
𝑇𝑠→ Surface temp
߳ → surface emissivity
𝛿𝑅 → Difference between incident surface
radiation and the radiation emitted by a
Solar loads on
black body at 𝑇𝑜 opaque wall

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 55

 Solar Heat
Gain
Fabric Heat Gain/Loss
Sol-air temperature (𝑇𝑒) – Fictitious Sun
For calculation of heat transfer through structures, it
has been found convenient to combine the effect of the
outside air temperature and incident solar radiation ℎ𝑜
intensity into a single quantity.
𝑇𝑠 Indoor
𝑞 = 𝑄= 𝛼𝐼𝑡 + ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑜− 𝑇𝑠
𝐴 − 𝜖𝛿𝑅

𝑞 = 𝑄= ℎ𝑜 𝑇𝑒− 𝑇𝑜
𝐴
𝑇𝑠
𝛼𝐼𝑡 𝜖𝛿𝑅 Q
𝑇𝑒= 𝑇𝑜 + −
ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜
This temperature 𝑇𝑒is called the sol-air temperature and can Solar loads on
be considered as an equivalent outside air temperature such opaque wall
that the total heat transferred is the same as due to the
combined effect of the incident solar radiation and outside
air and the wall temperature difference.
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 56
 Solar Heat
Decrement Factor and Time Lag: Gain
It has been seen that there is a two-fold effect of thermal capacity on heat transfer through
building structures.
1. There is time lag between the heat transfer at the outside surface 𝑞𝑜 and the heat
transfer at the inside surface 𝑞𝑜
2. There is a decrement in the heat transfer due to the absorption of heat by the wall
and subsequent transfer of a part of this heat back to the outside air when its
temperature is lower

Variation of the instant direct, diffused and total Variation of heat transfer rate with time
solar radiations on a horizontal surface with time for thin and thick walled buildings
under clear sky conditions Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 57
 Solar Heat
Gain
Fabric Heat Gain/Loss
Decrement Factor and Time Lag:

Variation of time and decrement factor with wall thickness and density.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 58

 Solar Heat Gain
Heat Gain From Internal
Occupancy Sources

 Sensible and latent heat gains depending upon the nature of activity.
 Latent heat gains are instantaneous while sensible heat gains do not immediately
become part of the cooling load due to thermal storage characteristics of the
space.
Lighting
 Like occupancy, the rate of instantaneous heat gain can be quite different from
the heat equivalent power rating of the lights.

 Part of the energy emitted in the

form of convective heat
becomes instantaneous cooling
load.
 The remaining part as radiant
heat is initially absorbed by
the surroundings and then
released after a time lag.
T
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 59
 Solar Heat Gain
Heat Gain From Internal
Sources
Lighting

Where
𝑞 𝑒𝑙 → heat gain, W
𝐹𝑢𝑙 → lighting use factor
𝐹𝑠𝑎→ lighting special allowance factor

The total light wattage is obtained from the

ratings of all lamps
Installed
The lighting use factor is the ratio of the
wattage in use
The special allowance factor is for
fluorescent fixtures that are either ventilated Thermal Storage Effect in Cooling Load from
or installed so that only part of their heat Lights
goes to the conditioned space.

http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/education/learning/terminology/ballastfactor.asp

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 60

 Solar Heat Gain
General Indoor Design Conditions

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 61

Download and Install Hourly Analysis Program (HAP):
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0Bzb7sItaOgh2dnVibk80UDRmSkU

Reference:
• Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (C.P. Arora)
• Ashrae 1997HVACFundamentalsHandbook_Chap 28
• NPTEL

Visit: https://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=0gv2tJf7nwo&t=1s

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 62

Reference:
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (C.P. Arora)

Visit:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gv2tJf7nwo&t=1s

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 63