Notes

Notes

Scientific Method

Chapter 1: Section 2
How Scientists Work
Lecture Outline – The Scientific Method
PowerPoint Notes
textbook questions

Keys
Keys
 How Scientists
Work:
Solving the Problems
 Much of biology deals with solving
problems
 These problems can be environmental,
ecological, health related, etc.
 No matter what types of problems
are being studied, scientists use
the same problem-solving steps
called…
 The Scientific Method
 Scientific Method
Definition
 The scientific method is-
 A logical and systematic approach or
process to problem solving.
 An organized way of using evidence
to learn about the natural world.
 According to Wikipedia - Scientific method is a body
of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring
new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating
previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable
, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific
principles of reasoning, the collection of data through
observation and experimentation, and the formulation
and testing of hypotheses.
 Scientific Method
Listing the Steps
 Make an Observation
 Define the Problem
 Research the Problem
 State the Hypothesis
 Experiment to test Hypothesis
 Collect and Record Data
 Analyze Data
 Draw Conclusions
 Determine Limitations
 Report Results
If needed, Do more investigation
S
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F T I
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 First What does the scientist want
Question to learn more about?

Then

Research Gathering of information

Scientific Method Next

An Overview An “Educated” guess of an

Hypothesis answer to the question

Then
Written and carefully
Procedure/ followed step-by-step
Method experiment designed to test
the hypothesis
Next

Information collected during

Data the experiment

And And

Written description of what

Observations was noticed during the
experiment

Finally

Was the hypothesis correct

Conclusion or incorrect?
 First What
What does
does the
the scientist
scientist want
want
Question to
to learn
learn more
more about?
about?

Then

Research Gathering
Gathering of
of information
information

Scientific Method Next

An Overview An
An “Educated”
“Educated” guess
guess of
of an
an
Hypothesis answer
answer to
to the
the question
question

Then
Written
Written and
and carefully
carefully
Procedure/ followed
followed step-by-step
step-by-step
Method experiment
experiment designed
designed toto test
test
the
the hypothesis
Next

Information
Information collected during
Data the
the experiment
experiment

And And

Written
Written description
description of
of what
what
Observations was
was noticed
noticed during
during the
the
experiment
experiment

Finally

Was
Was the hypothesis correct
correct
Conclusion or
or incorrect?
incorrect?
S Hypothesis
C
I O

(Experiments)
Procedures
(Conclusions)
E
V

Findings
N Scientific
T E Method
I
F M R
I E V
C Data
T I (Results)
H E Repeat steps 3-7 for competing hypotheses.
O W Competing hypotheses may include revisions
D of the original hypothesis suggested by the
results of the testing process.
S
CHere is another Form
Define a
/ Identify
Iexample of howO the Make
Hypothesis
the Problem

Test Hypothesis
Esteps may go…. Observations
Perform Experiments

N V
Even though we New
Experiments
T E
show the scientific Organize and
Imethod as a series of Analyze Data

F M R
steps, keep in mind
Ithat new
E information
V
Cor thinking might Do Experiments
NO Faulty

causeTa scientist
I to
Experiments?
and Observations
Support Hypothesis?

back upH and repeat

E
steps at any point YES

duringO W
the process.
Communicate
D Results

Draw Valid
Conclusions
 Scientific Method
 Let’s break
each of
these steps
down into
their
individual
components:
 Scientific Method
 Let’s break Ask Question

each of Do Background
Research
these steps
down into Construct
Hypothesis
Think!
Try Again

their Test with an

Experiment
individual
components: Analyze Results
Draw Conclusion

Hypothesis is False
Hypothesis is True
or Partially True

Report Results
 1. Observing
As we all know, frogs have four legs.

 Make an
observation
 See
something What’s up
unusual with these
froggies?
 Frogs with
incorrect
number of
legs!
 2. Questioning
 Recognize, state or define the
problem
 Must be in the form of a question
 The obvious question is:
 What is causing these deformities?
 3. Researching
 Gather information related to the problem
 Read, observe, measure, take samples, etc.
 How frogs normally develop from eggs
 The % of frogs with the
deformities
 Number of other species in
the pond with deformities
 Previous or new pollutants
in the pond
 Change in amount of UV
(sunlight) exposure on eggs
 Etc.
 4. Hypothesizing

 A hypothesis is:
 An educated guess, trial answer, possible
solution, prediction
 Must be a statement
 Must be testable or measurable
 Is based on your research
and previous experience
 Hypothesizing

 List possible explanations (alternative

hypotheses) based on your previous
experience (what you already know);
and on research you have done
 all of the hypotheses must be testable
(no demons allowed!)
 Hypothesizing
Some
Disease
Aliens
Something
Chemical
Genetic
Ultraviolet
Loud possible
from
Rock outer
Else-
Pollution-
mutation- explanations
Radiation-
(virus,
+ Roll space-
parasite,
Music- etc.)- (hypotheses)
forthis
If thehypothesis
frog deformities:is true, then:
IfGenetic
this hypothesis
Another possibility
mutation is true,
that we then:
might think of
You should be able to to
find a likely chemical pollutant inagent
the
Sorry,
If
We this
should
isChemical hypothesis
predation
deformed
be able is true,
find the then:
disease-causing
or cannibalism, which seems to
Pollution
frog ponds
(for
If
We weexample,
mate
should be parasites)
deformed
able to at the deformed
frogs
measure the offspring
unusually frog
high ponds
should
levels
Okay,
be
this
You
We
of
the is
shouldbest
Ultraviolet
should
UV
this
not
be
radiation
able is
allowed
able
at
to testable,
explanation
isolate
be Radiation
the for
to find thefrog
deformed
certain
because
chemical
parasites
from
sites in the
kinds
the pondof
show
water
deformitiessimilar deformities
(frogs with missing limbs).
but
deformed
it
We
You
The is WHY
not
should
Disease
should
If this
frogs
be
be
deformities test
testable
able
(virus
able
hypothesis
to
or it???
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show using
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isuse
that
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thefairly
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able
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predictable
Scientific
These
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you
Rock
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&predictions;
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ofMethod.
find frogs Music
and/or
same predictions
other kinds youof mayother
havepond
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based already
oninthiscritters
thought
the lab
The
of the particular
Aliens
with from
fact that
evidence
hypothesis? deformities
outer
chemical space
that pollution
their should
should
legs have only
affect be limbs
all four
been
Sheesh!
equally, in
found or that
Something one other organisms from the same ponds should
species
else
show deformities as well off
damaged or bitten
 5. Experimenting

 Testing the hypothesis

 Pick the hypothesis that makes the most
sense and is
easy to test
 Then design a
controlled
experiment
 Experimenting
 Go to the web site for Hartwick College to
see the experiments and how
the scientific method was
actually used to find out the
cause of recently
found frog deformities.

 http://www.hartwick.edu/biology/def_frogs/I
ntroduction/Exploration/explore.html
 Experimenting
 Let’s look at the text book example of
the Scientific Method using Redi’s Experiment
on Spontaneous Generation
 He was trying to disprove
the idea of Spontaneous
Generation (or actually
that flies came from
maggots, which came
from flies)

Francesco Redi (1668)

 Stating the Problem
 Example: How do new living things
come into being?
 Spontaneous generation once
commonly accepted
 Redi wanted to show what caused
the appearance of maggots (and
then flies) on meat
 Belief based on
prior observations
 If leaf lands on water it becomes a fish
 If bale of hay left in barn it produces mice
 Muddy soil gives rise to frogs
 Meat hung out in the market is the
source of flies
 Belief based on
prior observations
 Redi observed that maggots appeared
on meat a few days after flies were on
meat
 No microscope = no way to see eggs
 But Redi believed that maggots came
from eggs that were laid by flies
 Forming a Hypothesis

Redi’s Hypothesis:
Flies produce maggots.
 How could he test this?
 Through a controlled experiment
 Redi’s Controlled
Experiment
 Redi used two groups of jars
 Jars that contained meat and no cover
 Jars that contained meat and gauze cover

Jars with meat

Uncovered jars

Covered jars
 Control and
Experimental Groups
 Control group: used as a standard of
comparison
 Experimental group: the group containing
the factor (variable) that has been changed
(manipulated or independent variable)
Two groups
of jars
Uncovered jars

Covered jars
Variables in an
Experiment
 Variables - Factors that can be changed
 Controlled Variables - all the variables that remain constant
 Manipulated Variable - (also called the Independent
Variable) - factor in an experiment that a scientist purposely
changes
 Responding Variable- (also called the Dependent
Variable) - the outcome or results, factor in an experiment that
may change because of the manipulated variable….
what a scientist wants to observe
 Setting up a Controlled
Experiment
 In a controlled experiment, only one
factor is changed at a time.
 Independent variable: the factor that
is deliberately changed
 Dependent variable:
the factor that the scientist wants to
observe; it changes in response to
the independent variable
 Variables in Redi’s
Experiment
 Controlled Variables: jars, type of meat,
location, temperature, time
 Manipulated Variables:
gauze covering
that keeps flies
away from meat
Let’s think about this.
…
1. Which is the control group? Uncovered jars
2. Which is the experimental group?
Covered jars
Two groups of
Jars with meat
Uncovered jars

Covered jars
 Redi’s Experiment on Spontaneous Generation
OBSERVATIONS: Flies land on meat that is left uncovered. Later, maggots appear on the meat.
HYPOTHESIS: Flies produce maggots.
PROCEDURE
Uncovered jars Covered jars

Controlled Variables:
jars, type of meat,
location, temperature,
time
Several
days pass

Manipulated Variables:
gauze covering that
keeps flies away from
meat

Responding Variable:
whether maggots
appear Maggots appear No maggots appear

CONCLUSION: Maggots form only when flies come in contact with meat. Spontaneous
generation of maggots did not occur.
 6. Collect and Record
Data
Data: observations and measurements
made in an experiment
Types of Recorded Data

 Quantitative - observations that involve

measurements/numbers;
i.e. 3 days, 12 maggots, 4 g, 13 sec,
8 liters
 Qualitative - observations that
do not involve numbers, are of a
descriptive nature
i.e. white maggots covered the meat,
leaves were all wilting
 7. Analyze the Data
 Examine data tables, charts, and graphs
 Examine experimental notes
 Look for trends, patterns, and averages
 What does the data show
 Put your data into words
 8. Draw Conclusions
 Restate the hypothesis:
Example: Flies produce maggots.
 Accept or reject the hypothesis.
 Support your conclusion with specific, numerical data.
 What was Redi’s conclusion?
 Flies lay eggs too small to be seen.
 Maggots found on rotting meat are produced
from the eggs laid by flies.
 Maggots are not appearing due to
spontaneous
generation!
 9. Determine
Limitations
 Scientists look for possible
flaws in their research
 They look for faulty
(inaccurate) data
 They look for experimental
error or bias's
 They decide on the validity
of their results
 They make suggestions for improvement or
raise new questions
 10. Publish Results
 Communication is an
essential part of science
 Scientists report their
results in journals,
on the internet, or
at conferences
 This allows their
experiments to be
evaluated and repeated
 Scientists can build on previous
Redi’s experiment
on insects generation
work of other scientists
 Repeating the
Investigation
 Sometimes results are unexpected.
Repeat the experiment!
 John Needham challenged Redi’s experiment
and designed his own to show that
spontaneous generation CAN occur under
certain circumstances.

 Lazzaro Spallanzini
designed a slightly
different experiment
to improve on
Needham’s work
 Repeating the
Experiment
(continued)
 Louis Pasteur further modified the
experiment.
 Scientific Method

How Scientists Work

Solving the
Problems
The reason scientific work is called
“RE-search” rather than just "search "
is because it is an ongoing process
that often times changes our view of
the natural world. It is subject to
modification in light of new evidence
and new ways of thinking.
S

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 Can you put these
steps in order?
2 7 10 6 8

Define the
Analyze Report Results
Problem
Data

5 1 4 9 3

Make an
State the Determine
Observation
Hypothesis Limitations the Problem
 Steps of Scientific
Method in order
1 2 3 4 5

Make an Define the State the

Observation Problem the Problem Hypothesis

6 7 8 9 10

Analyze Determine Report Results

Data Limitations
Scientific Theory
 A theory is an
explanation of a set of
related observations
or events based upon
proven hypotheses
and verified multiple
times by detached
groups of researchers
Scientific Law
Scientific Method

 Scientific laws represent

the cornerstone
of scientific discovery
 They must be simple,
true, universal, and
absolute
 If a law ever did not
apply, then all
science based
upon that law would
collapse