Chapter 2

Orthogonal Representation,
Fourier Series and Power Spectra
 Orthogonal Series Representation of Signals and Noise
• Orthogonal Functions
• Orthogonal Series
 Fourier Series.
• Complex Fourier Series
• Quadrature Fourier Series
• Polar Fourier Series
• Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
• Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms

Huseyin Bilgekul
Eeng360 Communication Systems I
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Eastern Mediterranean University Eeng 360 1
 Orthogonal Functions
 Definition: Functions ϕn(t) and ϕm(t) are said to be
Orthogonal with respect to each other the interval a < t < b if
they satisfy the condition,

where

• δnm is called the Kronecker delta function.

• If the constants Kn are all equal to 1 then the ϕn(t) are
said to be orthonormal functions.
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Example 2.11 Orthogonal Complex Exponential Functions

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 Orthogonal Series
Theorem: Assume w(t) represents a waveform over the interval a < t
<b. Then w(t) can be represented over the interval (a, b) by the series
where, the coefficients an are given by following where n is an integer
value :
w(t )   ann (t )
n

1 b
an   w(t ) (t )dt
*
n
Kn a

• If w(t) can be represented without any errors in this way

we call the set of functions {φn} as a “Complete Set”
• Examples for complete sets:
• Harmonic Sinusoidal Sets {Sin(nw0t)}
• Complex Expoents {ejnwt}
• Bessel Functions
• Legendare polynominals Eeng 360 4
 Orthogonal Series
Proof of theorem: Assume that the set {φn} is sufficient to represent
the waveform w(t) over the interval a < t <b by the series

w(t )   an n (t )
n

We operate the integral operator on both sides to get,

• Now, since we can find the coefficients an writing w(t) in series

form is possible. Thus theorem is proved.
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 Application of Orthogonal Series
 It is also possible to generate w(t) from the ϕj(t) functions and the coefficients aj.

 In this case, w(t) is approximated by using a reasonable number of the ϕj(t)

functions.

w(t) is realized by adding

weighted versions of
orthogonal functions

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 Ex. Square Waves Using Sine Waves.

n =1
n =3
n =5

http://www.educatorscorner.com/index.cgi?CONTENT_ID=2487

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 Fourier Series
Complex Fourier Series

 The frequency f0 = 1/T0 is said to be the fundamental frequency and the frequency
nf0 is said to be the nth harmonic frequency, when n>1.

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Some Properties of Complex Fourier Series

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Some Properties of Complex Fourier Series

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 Quadrature Fourier Series

 The Quadrature Form of the Fourier series representing any

physical waveform w(t) over the interval a < t < a+T0 is,
n  n 
w(t )   an cos(n0t )   bn sin(n0t )
n 0 n 0

where the orthogonal functions are cos(nω0t) and sin(nω0t).

Using we can find the Fourier coefficients as:

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 Quadrature Fourier Series
• Since these sinusoidal orthogonal functions are periodic, this series is periodic
with the fundamental period T0.

• The Complex Fourier Series, and the Quadrature Fourier Series are equivalent
representations.

• This can be shown by expressing the complex number cn as below

For all integer values of n

and

Thus we obtain the identities

and

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 Polar Fourier Series
• The POLAR F Form is

where w(t) is real and

The above two equations may be inverted, and we obtain

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Polar Fourier Series Coefficients

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 Line Spetra for Periodic Waveforms
Theorem: If a waveform is periodic with period T0, the spectrum of the
waveform w(t) is

where f0 = 1/T0 and cn are the phasor Fourier coefficients of the waveform
Proof:

Taking the Fourier transform of both sides, we obtain

Here the integral representation for a delta function was used.

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 Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms

Theorem: If w(t) is a periodic function with period T0 and is represented by

Where,

then the Fourier coefficients are given by:

The Fourier Series Coefficients can also be calculated from the

periodic sample values of the Fourier Transform.

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 Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
n 
w(t )  Line
h(t  nT )
n  Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
o

cn  f o H (nf o )

h(t) h(t )  H ( f )
The Fourier Series Coefficients
of the periodic signal can be
calculated from the Fourier
Transform of the similar
n 
nonperiodic signal.
W( f )   c  ( f  nf
n 
n o ) The sample values for the
n  Fourier transform gives the
=   f o H ( nfo )   ( f  nf o ) Fourier series coefficients.
n  Eeng 360 17
Line Spectra for Periodic Waveforms
Single Pulse
Continous Spectrum

Periodic Pulse Train Line Spectrum

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Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave

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Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave

 Now evaluate the coefficients from the Fourier Transform

 T Sa(fT)

Now compare the spectrum for this periodic rectangular wave (solid lines) with the
spectrum for the rectangular pulse.
• Note that the spectrum for the periodic wave contains spectral lines, whereas the
spectrum for the nonperiodic pulse is continuous.
• Note that the envelope of the spectrum for both cases is the same |(sin x)/x| shape,
where x=Tf.
• Consequently, the Null Bandwidth (for the envelope) is 1/T for both cases, where T is
the pulse width.
• This is a basic property of digital signaling with rectangular pulse shapes. The null
bandwidth is the reciprocal of the pulse width.

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Ex. 2.12 Fourier Coeff. for a Periodic Rectangular Wave

Single Pulse
Continous Spectrum

Periodic Pulse Train Line Spectrum

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 Normalized Power
Theorem: For a periodic waveform w(t), the normalized power
is given by:

where the {cn} are the complex Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

Proof: For periodic w(t), the Fourier series representation is valid over all time
and may be substituted into Eq.(2-12) to evaluate the normalized power:

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 Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms

Theorem: For a periodic waveform, the power spectral density (PSD) is given by

where T0 = 1/f0 is the period of the waveform and

{cn} are the corresponding Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

PSD is the FT of the

Autocorrelation
function

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 Power Spectral Density for a Square Wave
• The PSD for the periodic square wave will be found.
• Because the waveform is periodic, FS coefficients can be used to evaluate the PSD.
Consequently this problem becomes one of evaluating the FS coefficients.

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