DET20033 : ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

CHAPTER 1
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
AND CURRENT
CHAPTER REVIEW
1.1) Know an alternating current(AC)
 Distinguish between AC and DC current

Alternating Current Direct Current

Safe to transfer over longer Voltage of DC cannot travel

Amount of energy that
city distances and can very far until it begins to
can be carried
provide more power. lose energy.
Cause of the direction of Rotating magnet along the Steady magnetism along
flow of electrons wire. the wire.
The frequency of
alternating current is 50Hz The frequency of direct
Frequency
or 60Hz depending upon current is zero.
the country.
It reverses its direction It flows in one direction in
Direction
while flowing in a circuit. the circuit.
It is the current of
It is the current of constant
Current magnitude varying with
magnitude.
time
Electrons keep switching
Electrons move steadily in
Flow of Electrons directions - forward and
one direction or 'forward'.
backward.
Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.
Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only
Power Factor Lies between 0 & 1. it is always 1.
Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal,
Types Pure and pulsating.
Triangular, Square.
Why AC is used in preference to DC

 AC is commonly used because:

- More voltage can be generated than DC
- AC voltage can be increased and decreased with the help of
static machine called transformers.
- AC transmission and distribution is more economical as line
material can be saved by transmitting power at higher voltage
- AC can be converted to DC easily (using rectifier circuit) but DC cannot
be converted to AC easily and will not be economical.

The sources of alternating current AC

 Source of AC:
i) Rotating electrical machine (AC generator)
- Rotating conductor
- Rotating flux magnetic
ii) Electronic Oscillator Circuit (electrical signal generator)
1.2 ) GENERATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

Faraday’s and Lenz’s Law involved in generating a.c current

FARADAY LAW
 The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic field with respect to the coil.

 The amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to the

number of turns of wire in the coil (N).
LENZ’S LAW
 Lenz’s Law is used to find the direction of induced
e.m.f and hence current in a conductor or coil.
 Lenz’s Law is stated as follows:
The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change
causing it.
AC waveforms produced by a simple alternating current
generator (one loop in 2-pole magnet)
 Coil voltage versus angular position.
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and electronic oscillators.

When a conductor rotates in a constant magnetic field, a

sinusoidal wave is generated.

CC

N B
B DD S
AA A B C D

M o t io n o f c o n d u c t o r C o n d u c to r

When the loop is moving perpendicular

to the lines of flux, the maximum voltage
is induced. When the conductor is moving
parallel with the lines of flux, no
voltage is induced.
Develop an equation of a sinusoidal waveform,
e = Em sin (ωt + θ)  From emf formula:
e = - d(N) / dt volt
= - N d / dt
= - N d(m cos t) /dt
= -Nm  (-sin t )

 So, formula become:

e = Nm  sin t
= Nm  sin  (1)
 
 When the coil has turned through 900 i.e.
when  = 900, then sin  = 1, hence e has
maximum values, say Em .

 Therefore, from Eq. we get  

Em = Nm  (2)
 
 Substituting eq (1) and (2), we get
e = Em sin  = Em sin t
 
 Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is
i = Im sin t.

  Since  = 2f , where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the

above equations of the voltage and current can be written as
e = Em sin 2f t and i = Im sin 2f t.

 Instantaneous value : e = Em sin t

 Xn

e = Em sin (ωt + θ) where,

Em = maximum coil voltage (peak voltage)
ωt = instantaneous angular position of the coil
 ω is angular velocity = 2πf
θ = phase shift (angle of lag or lead)
1.3) SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE AND
CURRENT VALUES
Frequency, period, peak value or amplitude and their relations

Cycle A complete consist of ½ cycle positive and ½ cycle

negative.

Period (T) The time interval for one complete cycle of a

periodic waveform.
T = 1/f

Frequency (f) A cycle within one second. Unit used is hertz (Hz)
f = 1/T

Peak value (Vp) / Value of voltage or current at the positive or negative

Amplitude maximum (peaks) with respect to zero.
Determine the various voltage and current values of a sine wave

Instantaneous value The value at different points along the curve.

Peak-to-peak value Voltage or current from the positive peak to

the negative peak.
Vpp = 2Vp or Ipp = 2Ip

rms value Term rms stands for root mean square. RMS value
referred to as the effective value and actually a
measure of the heating effect of sine wave.
Vrms = 0.707Vp or Irms = 0.707Ip

Average value Defined over a half cycle rather than over a full
cycle.
Vavg = 0.637Vp or Iavg = 0.637Ip
Form Factor RMS over average value.
Form Factor = RMS value
Average value
= 0.707Vp
0.637Vp
= 1.11

Peak Factor Peak value over RMS value

Form Factor = Peak value
RMS value
= Vp .
0.707Vp
= 1.414
Calculate mean value, rms value and peak factor for a
given waveform.
20 V

15 V

The peak-to-peak 10 V
voltage is 40 V. Vrms
0 V
0
VPP 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (s)

The rms voltage is

-1 0 V
14.1 V
-1 5 V

-2 0 V
 20 V

15 V

10 V
The average value for Vavg
the sinusoidal voltage is
0 V t (s)
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
12.7 V.
-1 0 V
-1 5 V

-2 0 V
Example 1

Calculate Vp, Vpp, Vrms,

Vavg, frequency and
peak factor.
Vp =
Vpp =
Vrms =
Vave =
f=
Peak factor =
 1.4) UNDERSTAND ANGULAR MEASUREMENT OF A
SINE WAVE
How to measure a sine wave in terms of angles
 Sinusoidal voltage can be produced
electromagnetically by rotating electromechanical
machines. As the rotor of the ac generator goes
through a full 360 of rotation, the resulting output is
0

one full cycle of a sine wave

Define radian

 A radian (rad) is the angle formed when the distance

along the circumference of a circle is equal to the
radius of the circle.
 One radian is equivalent to 57.30 .
0
Convert radians to degree
Because there are 2 radians in one complete revolution and 360o in a
revolution, the conversion between radians and degrees is easy to write. To
find the number of radians, given the number of degrees:

Rad = degree X π
180

To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

Degree = rad X 180
π
Determine the phase angle of a sine wave

The phase angle of a sine wave is an angular

measurement that specifies the position of that sine
wave relative to a reference.

e  Em sin  t   

where
θ = Phase angle
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between
different waveforms of the same frequency.

e = Em sin ωt
i = im sin ωt

e = Em sin ωt
i = im sin (ωt + θ)

e = Em sin ωt
i = im sin (ωt – θ)
Example of a wave that lags the reference
…and the equation
has a negative phase
R e f e re n c e shift
40
30 P e a k v o lt a g e
20 v = 30 V sin (  45o)
V o lt a g e ( V )

10
0
0 45 90 135 180 2 2 5 270 315 360 405

-2 0
-3 0
Notice that a lagging sine wave
-40 is below the axis at 0o

A n g le ( )
Example of a wave that leads the reference

Notice that a leading sine wave

R e f e re n c e is above the axis at 0o
40
30 P e a k vo lt a g e
20 v = 30 V sin ( + 45o)
V o lt a g e ( V )

10

-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 3 1 5 360

-1 0
-2 0 …and the equation
-3 0 has a positive phase
shift
-4 0

A n g le ( )
1.5) A PHASOR TO REPRESENT A SINE WAVE

Define phasor

The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a vector

rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is called a phasor.

Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.

h y p o te n u s e

o p p o s ite s id e
rig h t
 a n g le
o p p o s ite s id e
a d ja c e n t s id e s in  =
h y p o te n u s e
How phasors are related to the sine wave formula

90

180 0 0 90 180 360

 Draw a phasor diagram
The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed as a
positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0 or as a negative
angle equal to   360.

positive angle of 

negative angle of   360

phasor
A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at 25 V) is shown.
The instantaneous voltage at 50o is 19.2 V as previously calculated.

9 0

Vp Vp= 25 V
v = V p s in = 1 9 .2 V
= 50
0 50
V p
Identify angular velocity

When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2 radians, one complete

cycle is traced out.
The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity ().

 = 2f

(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians

per second.)
 Sometimes voltages and currents are expressed in terms of cos ωt
rather than sin ωt. For sines or cosines with an angle, the
following formulas apply:

To illustrate, consider cos(ωt + 30°). From Equation above,

cos(ωt + 30°) = sin(ωt + 30° + 90°) = sin(ωt + 120°)
 
 Figure below illustrates this relationship graphically. The red
phasor in as was shown

• Figure (a) generates cos ωt

• Figure (b) generates sin ωt, and the green phasor generates a
waveform that leads it by 120°
 
1.6) THE BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS OF RESISTIVE
AC CIRCUITS
Apply Ohm's Law to resistive circuits with AC
sources
• In general, Ohm's law for resistive AC circuits is given
by:
V = IR

Where,
V = voltage
I = current
R = resistance
 When an AC circuit consists of a voltage source and a resistor, the
current is in phase with the voltage, meaning that each quantity
rises and declines in step.
This expression is also accurate for the maximum values of the potential and
current. Where;
  Vm sin t
R   iR
therefore Vm sin t  iR
Vm
i sin t
R
i become maximum when sin t  1
Vm
 i or Vm  iR
  Vm sin t R
Vavg Vmax
I avg  or I max 
R R
V peak to  peak
I peak to  peak 
R
A series circuit consists of two resistors (R1 = 5 Ω and R2 = 15 Ω) and an
alternating voltage source of 120 volts. What is Iavg?

Find the current and voltage drop at all the resistors in the circuit shown below:
 Apply Kirchhoff's Voltage Law and Current Law to
resistive circuits with AC sources
Kirchhoff’s Law can be divided into 2:

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law

At any point in an electrical circuit where change density is
not changing in time, the sum of current flowing towards
that point is equal to the sum of currents flowing away from
that point.

or
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The algebraic sum of various potential drops
across an electrical circuit is equal to the
electromotive force acting on the circuit

Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
 Kirchhoff Current Law

Calculate value current that flows to

each branch use Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff Voltage Law

Determine Vx
Determine power in resistive AC circuits

 This power, measured in watts, is the power

associated with the total resistance in the
circuit
 To calculate true power, the voltage and
current associated with the resistance must be
used.