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Each computer has a visible structure, which

is referred to as its 2

 3 he
concept of architecture and making these
hardware components work in a
harmonized manner in order to achieve a
common objective in an environment is
known as
  
223
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^ à is referred to as the O 2 of a

computer system, which converts data
(input) into meaningful information
(output)3 A CPU controls all internal and
external devices, performs arithmetic and
logic operations, and operates only on
binary data (1s and 0s)3
 Components of CPU


 

^ contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical
operations on the data made available to it3
^ 

 
 t contains the circuitry that is responsible for performing the actual
computing and carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division3
^   
 t enables the CPU to make logical operations based on the instructions
provided to it3 he unit can compare numbers, letters, or special characters and can
then take action based on the result of the comparison3
 



^  


are special purpose, high-speed temporary memory units3 hese are
temporary storage areas for holding various types of information such as data,
instructions, addresses, and the intermediate results of calculations3
à

à
^ à contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system
to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions3 he control unit controls the

devices and transfer of data to and from the primary storage3
 à 

à
 
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^ 
is a set of connections between two or more components
devices, which are
designed to transfer several
all bits of a word from a specific source to destination3 t
consists of multiple paths, which are also termed as lines; each line is capable of
transferring one bit at a time3
 

^  is that part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing3
Memory stores program instructions or data for only as long as the program they
pertain to is in operation3 his memory itself is implemented by two types of memory
technologies3
^ 

   andom access memory directly provides the
required information to the processor3
^     ead only memory stores the initial start-up instructions
and routines in B , which can only be read by the CPU3 he contents of M are
not lost even in case of a sudden power failure, making it non-volatile in nature3
à  
^ à is a very high speed, expensive piece of memory (made from high speed
static AM), which is used to speed up the memory retrieval process3 Cache tores
most frequently access data into it3 Cache memory can be categorized into three
levels: ½

2
, ½

2
, and ½

2
3
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An instruction consists of an opcode and one or more operands, which may be
addressed implicitly or explicitly3 Each instruction is composed of two parts: the
op-code and the operand3


 



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CPU fetches an instruction stored in the memory and then executes the fetched
instructions within the CPU before it can proceed to fetch the next instruction
from memory and this process is continuous until specified to stop3 A simple
instruction cycle consists of two cycles3

 à 
etches the instruction from the memory buffer register3
 
à  Executes the instruction3 (*|


 
à

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Processors are built with the ability to execute a limited set of basic operations3 he collection of these operations are known as the
processor¶s instruction set3 t is necessary so that a user can create machine language programs to perform any logical and
or
mathematical operations3 Based upon the instruction sets, there are two common types of architectures, namely, à   
 
à  àà and

  
  à  
à 3


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o ensure better performance and increase the life of the small, sensitive, and expensive
components, they are placed inside a metal enclosure called system case or cabinet3
hese components include power supply, motherboard, ports and interfaces, expansion
cards, cables, memory chips, storage devices, processors, and many others3

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A  ' 


 defines a set of values used to represent quantity3 he number systems can be categorised into two broad categories:
o
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  his implies that there are 10 symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
and 93

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Decimal r = 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Binary r=2 0, 1
ctal r=8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Hexadecimal r = 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,

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+ 
  
 + 
!$!- !!-!-

2 16 emainder = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20
2 8 0 = 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 26
2 4 0 Decimal equivalent of !!-!- is $!-
2 2 0
1 0
Binary equivalent of !$!- is !----

+ 
 
 

 + 
)./!- %.$#

8 359 emainder = 4 × 82 + 5 × 81 + 6 × 80
8 44 7 = 256 + 40 + 6 = 302
8 5 4 Decimal equivalent of %.$# is )-!-
8 0 5
ctal equivalent of )./!- is .%0#
+ 
 1   1  
 + 
.!!!- !%!$

16 5112 emainder = 11 × 162 + 1 × 161 + 4 × 160

16 319 8=8 = 2816 + 16 + 4 = 2836
16 19 15 =
Decimal equivalent of !%!$ is #)$!-
16 1 3=3
16 0 1=1
Hexadecimal equivalent of .!!!- is !)#!$

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Data can be arranged in a way that is very simple and easy to decode, or transmitted with varying degrees of redundancy for error
detection and correction3 he most commonly used coding systems are:
  |
 à  
 
 |à he standard binary code for the alphanumeric characters is AC 3
his code was originally designed as a 7-bit code3 everal computer manufacturers cooperated to develop this code for transmitting and
processing data3 n AC , upper case letters are assigned codes beginning with hexadecimal value 41 and continuing sequentially
through hexadecimal value 5A and lower case letters are assigned hexadecimal values of 61 through 7A3 he decimal values 1 to 9 are
assigned the zone code 0011 in AC 3
  Before the invention of Unicode, hundreds of different encoding systems for assigning numbers were used3 As no single
encoding system could contain enough characters to assign the numbers, this made the task very difficult3 Even for a single language like
English, no single encoding was adequate for all the letters, punctuation, and technical symbols in common use3 Moreover, these encoding
systems also conflicted with one another3 herefore, to overcome these issues, Unicode encoding system was developed3