Chapter 5

Ethics and Ethical Analysis

 Ethics
• Every society forms a set of rules that establishes the
boundaries of generally accepted behavior.
• As children grow, they learn complicated tasks—such as
walking, talking, swimming, riding a bike, and writing the
alphabet—that they perform out of habit for the rest of
their lives.
• People also develop habits that make it easier for them to
choose between what society considers good or bad.
• A virtue is a habit that inclines people to do what is
acceptable, and a vice is a habit of unacceptable behavior.
Fairness, generosity, and loyalty are examples of virtues,
while vanity, greed, envy, and anger are considered vices.
 Ethics
Ethics is a set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior
within a society.
 Ethical behavior conforms to generally accepted norms
—many of which are almost universal.
However, although nearly everyone would agree that
certain behaviors—such as lying and cheating—are
unethical, opinions about what constitutes ethical
behavior can vary dramatically.
 For example, attitudes toward software piracy—a form
of copyright infringement that involves making copies
of software or enabling others to access software to
which they are not entitled.
 Traditional Definition
• The word ethics comes from an ancient Greek word eché, which means
character.
• Every human society, whether civilized or primitive, practices ethics because
every society attaches a value on an individual’s actions, on a continuum of
good to bad, right to wrong, according to where that individual’s actions fall
within the domain of that society’s rules and canons.

• Fr. Austin Fagothey in Right and Reason traces the origins of ethics from the
Greeks.

• He observes that the Greeks’ desire and curiosity to learn about themselves,
the human life, and society led to the examination of all human conducts, a
part of philosophy called ethics.

• Ethics is, therefore, a study of right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics can
also be defined as a theoretical examination of morality and as an equivalent
of the theory of morals .
 Traditional Definition
• Robert C. Solomon in Morality and the Good Life
gives a traditional philosophical definition of
ethics as a set of “theories of value, virtue, or of
right (valuable) action.”
• Johnson elaborates on Solomon’s definition by
defining ethics as a set of theories “that provide
general rules or principles to be used in making
moral decisions and, unlike ordinary intuitions,
provides a justification for those rules”
 Ethical Theories
• For centuries, in different societies, human actions have
been judged good or bad, right or wrong, based on
theories or systems of justice developed, tested, revised,
and debated by philosophers and/or elders in that society.
• Such theories are commonly known as ethical theories.
• There are many ethical theories, but we consider only a
few that are most widely discussed and used, namely,
– consequentialism,
– deontology,
– human nature,
– relativism,
– hedonism, and
– emotivism.
 Consequentialism
• In consequentialism ethical theory, human actions are
judged good or bad, right or wrong, depending on the
results of such actions—a desirable result denotes a
good action and vice versa.
• There are three commonly discussed types of
consequentialism theory:
– Egoism : This theory puts an individual’s interests and
happiness above everything else. With egoism, any action is
good as long as it maximizes an individual’s overall happiness.
– There are two kinds of egoism:
• ethical egoism, which states how people ought to behave as they
pursue their own interests, and
• psychological egoism, which describes how people actually behave.
 Consequentialism
– utilitarianism Unlike egoism, this theory puts a
group’s interest and happiness above those of an
individual, for the good of many. Thus, an action is
good if it benefits the maximum number of people.
– Among the forms of utilitarianism are the following:
• Act utilitarianism: Tells one to consider seriously the
consequences of all actions before choosing the one with
the best overall advantage, happiness in this case, for the
maximum number of people.
• Rule utilitarianism: Tells one to obey those rules that bring
the maximum happiness to the greatest number of people.
Rule utilitarianism maintains that a behavioral code or rule is
good if the consequences of adopting that rule are favorable
to the greatest number of people.
 Consequentialism
– Altruism : In altruism an action is right if the
consequences of that action are favorable to all
except the actor.
 Deontology
• The theory of deontological reasoning does not concern itself with
the consequences of the action but rather with the will of the action.
• An action is good or bad depending on the will inherent in it.
• According to deontological theory, an act is considered good if the
individual committing it had a good reason to do so.
• This theory has a duty attached to it.
• In fact, the word deontology comes from two Greek words: deon
meaning duty and logos meaning science .
• For example, we know that killing is bad, but if an armed intruder
enters your house and you kill him or her, your action is good,
according to deontologists. You did it because you had a duty to
protect your family and property.
 Human Nature

• This theory considers human beings as endowed

with all faculties and capabilities to live in
happiness. We are supposed to discover and then
develop those capabilities.
• In turn, those capabilities become a benchmark
for our actions, and our actions are then judged on
how much they measure up to those capabilities.
• According to the famous Greek philosopher
Aristotle, an individual committing an evil action is
lacking in some capabilities.
 Relativism
• Relativism is the idea that views are relative to
differences in perception and consideration.
• There is no universal, objective truth according to
relativism; rather each point of view has its own truth.
• This theory is negatively formulated, denying the
existence of universal moral norms.
• It takes right and wrong to be relative to society,
culture, or the individual.
• Relativism also states that moral norms are not fixed in
time.
 Hedonism
• Hedonism is one of the oldest ethical theories.
• It claims that pleasure is the only good thing in human
life, the end of life as the highest good.
• A hedonist acts only for maximum pleasure, and
whatever he or she does, it is done to maximize pleasure
or minimize pain.
• There are two types of hedonism:
– psychological hedonism, which claims that in fact what people
seek in their everyday actions is pleasure, and
– ethical hedonism, which claims that people ought to seek
pleasure and that pleasure is the moral good. Modern
hedonists use the word pleasure to mean happiness.
 Emotivism
• This theory maintains that ethical statements
are neither true nor false and cannot be
proven; they are really only statements about
how someone feels.
• Philosophers use these theories as engines to
help them to understand and justify human
actions.
• Emotivism is a meta-ethical view that claims
that ethical sentences do not
express propositions but emotional attitudes
 Functional Definition of Ethics
• Let A = { a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ,…, a n } be a collection of identi fi able
objects, a i , i = 1, 2,…, n .
• We call this collection a set.
• A function f defined on set A is a rule that takes elements of A and
assigns them values into another set R, called the range of the
function.
• The set A is the domain of f.
• We represent the function f as f : A → R.
• A function defined on two sets A and B takes pairs ( a , b) of
elements a Є A and b Є B and assigns to each pair a value r in the
range set R.
• For example, let A = { a 1, a 2, a 3} and B = { b 1, b 2}. Then f (A, B)
→ C is a mapping f ( a i , b j ) = r k for all a i Є A, b j Є B,
and r k Є C where r k = a j * b j for some operation * defined
on elements of A and B.
 Functional Definition of Ethics
• Let us use this model to construct a functional definition of ethics.
• Let the set A be the set of all possible human actions on which it is
possible to pass a value judgment.
• For example, if you think of an artwork, the human actions on it
could be an array of things like lifting it, hiding it, stealing it, and
many others.
• So define A = { a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ,…}.
• Let the second set B consist of many ethical or moral theories such
as the ones we have discussed in the previous sections.
• So B could contain theories like egoism, act utilitarianism, and
others. Define B = { b 1 , b 2 , b 3, …}.
• Finally, let R, the third set, be the set of all possible value
judgments on the human actions in A based on the ethical theories
in B.
 Functional Definition of Ethics
• The function f maps each pair ( a , b) of elements, with a Є
A and b Є B to a binary value in R.
• The first set is the set of input parameters. The inputs are
human actions on which it is possible to pass a judgment.
• The second set consists of the ethical theories discussed
earlier, like consequentialism, deontology, and human nature.
• The third set R = {RIGHT or WRONG, GOOD or BAD}, the
range of the function f on the two sets A and B, is the value
set.
• Now define a function f on a pair of elements ( a , b) with a
Є A and b Є B to produce an element r Є R
as f : ( a , b ) → r .
• We call this function the ethics decision function.
 Ethical Reasoning and Decision Making
• Both reasoning and logic are important elements in daily
human interactions.
• Reasoning is a human cognitive process of looking for
ways to generate a proposition. Cognitive processes are
mental functions or activities that are grouped based on
experience , interpretation , foreseeing , ordering ,
analyzing , valuing , and making connections .
• Logic on the other hand, based on the Greek meaning, is
the tool for distinguishing between truth and falseness.
• Human beings, on a daily basis, engage in reasoning and
logic to achieve the desire results from a problem or an
issue. Both reasoning and logic are important in decision
making.
 Ethical Reasoning and Decision Making
• Ethical reasoning pertains to the rights and wrongs of human conduct.

• Each person has standards that are defined by their personal values which come into
play when the person faces certain dilemmas or decisions. Commonly, ethical
differences occur as a result of individual interpretation of a subject or event, or may
be political or religious in nature.

• Most human behavior has consequences for the welfare of others, even for society as
a whole. Individuals are able to act in such as way as to enhance or decrease the
quality of the lives of others, and generally know the difference between helping and
harming.

• Ethical reasoning holds two roles in life:

– Highlighting acts that enhance the well-being of other people.
– Highlighting acts that harm the well-being of other people.

• When an act enhances the well-being of others, it is worthy of praise from others,
when an act harms or decreases the well-being of others, it is worthy of criticism.
 Ethical Reasoning and Decision Making
• Ethical decision making is the process of making a decision
which may result in one or more moral conflicts. Such
process involves the decision maker to :

– Recognize the inherent ethical conflicts through comprehension,

appreciation, and evaluation of all ethical dimensions of problem.

– Knowing the parties involved.

– Being aware of alternatives.
– Demonstrating knowledge of ethical practices.
– Understand how the decision will be implemented and who will
be affected.
– Understand and comprehend the impact of the decision of the
parties involved.
 Codes of Ethics
• The main domains in which ethics is defined are governed by a particular and
definitive regiment of rules called codes of ethics.

• These rules, guidelines, canons, advisories, or whatever you want to call them are
usually followed by members of the respective domains.

• Depending on the domain, ethical codes can take any of the following forms:
– Principles, which may act as guidelines, references, or bases for some document
– Public policies, which may include aspects of acceptable behavior, norms, and practices of a
society or group
– Codes of conduct, which may include ethical principles
– Legal instruments, which enforce good conduct through courts

• Although the use of codes of ethics is still limited to professions and high visibility
institutions and businesses, there is a growing movement toward widespread use.
The wording, content, and target of many codes differ greatly. Some codes are
written purposely for the public; others are targeting employees, and yet others
are for professionals only.
 Objectives of Codes of Ethics

• Different domains and groups of people formulate different codes

of ethics, but they all have among them the following objectives:
– Disciplinary: By instilling discipline, the group or profession ensures
professionalism and integrity of its members.
– Advisory: The codes are usually a good source of tips to members and
offer advice and guidance in areas where there are fuzzy moral issues.
– Educational: Ethical codes are good educational tools for members of
the domain, especially the new ones who have to learn the do. These
codes are also a good source of renewal for the older members needing
to refresh and polish their possibly waning morals.
– Inspirational: Besides being disciplinary, advisory, and educational, the
codes should also carry subliminal messages to those using them to
inspire them to be “good.”
– Publicity: One way for professions to create a good clientele is to show
that they have a strong code of ethics, and therefore, their members are
committed to basic values and are responsible.
 Reflections on Computer Ethics
• New Wine in an Old Bottle
– We have so far defined computer ethics as a subset of
set A in the functional definition of ethics.
– We next elaborate on this by pointing out some likely
differences between the set A in the traditional
definition and set A in the functional definition, which
now includes computer ethics.
– Although the overall picture remains the same, there are
differences in the overall implementation of the models
because of the changes in set A of the functional
definition. These differences are manifested in several
places as discussed in the following sections.
 Reflections on Computer Ethics

• Changing Premises
– Although it is true that the outcome of the ethics
value function remains the same, the domain set
itself has changed and will keep changing.
– The number of input possibilities for every human
action keeps on growing with new advances in
computer technology.
 Reflections on Computer Ethics
Different Temptations
• In traditional ethics there were few temptations prompting
unethical actions. But according to Richard Rubin , computer
technology has generated many more temptations for each input
action. He outlines seven of these new temptations:
– Speed : The speed of gathering information has greatly increased, causing
unethical actions to be carried out in shorter times, thus decreasing the
chances of detection. When the chances of being caught are slim, many
perpetuators think that they can get away with it.
– Privacy and anonymity : The great availability of computers and computer-
related technology in less visible places like people’s homes; high, cheap,
and fast communication equipment; and software that can guarantee
anonymity are creating a highly tempting environment for unethical acts.
– Nature of medium : The ability to copy digital data without erasing or
altering the original in any way causes little or no suspicion and hence
encourages unethical activities.
 Reflections on Computer Ethics
• Different Temptations

– Aesthetic attraction : Technology, especially when it is new, seems to offer challenges to those
who try to use it. Thus, there is a sigh of relief and a sign of great achievement if one overcomes
a technological obstacle. In the same way, if an intruder tries to break into a computer system,
the sign of success and the euphoria thereafter overshadow the incivility of the act itself.

– Increased availability of potential victims: With the widespread use of computers and the ever-
widening reach of computer networks, an individual can now reach an unprecedented audience.
This in itself creates an urge to attempt things that one would otherwise not have done.

– International scope: The boundary less nature of many computer networks, including the
Internet, has created a temptation of its own. Now the entire world is well within reach by a
touch of a button. This can tempt many intruders, many trying to circumvent their country’s
laws, and others thinking that an illegal act done in another country cannot be prosecuted in
their own country. There are lots of temptations here.

– The power to destroy : Computers seem to give this enormous invisible power to those who
have them. This seemingly omniscient power may be a temptation to some. Although some of
these temptations can still be found in the set of the old temptations, most of them are new.
 Different Means of Delivery

• What used to be the traditional means of

carrying out an act like stealing has changed.
• With the expanded set of outcome possibilities
come expanded delivery systems for the crime.
• For example, let us go back to the check. The
traditional way of cashing a check was to go to
the bank. With computers facilitating new ways
of banking, you can get your check cashed
without ever visiting the bank, even in the
middle of the night.
 Complacent Society
• A majority of computer-related actions are either
deliberately ignored by society for fear of publicity
or hailed as novel science.
• This says that either members of society are still
caught in the spell of the new wonder machine or
that they have gotten so comfortable with the new
wonder machine that they let their moral and
ethical standards slide.
• Whatever it is, society is too complacent about
computers, and until this attitude changes,
computer ethics is likely to remain different from
traditional ethics.
 Ethical Muddles
• With the possibility of numerous inputs from
events, new difficulties of choice and
justification cause ethical dilemmas, creating
conflicting arguments and counterarguments
on an input possibility of an event.
• This is because computers produce new
situations that sometimes fall within our
existing laws, rules, and moral principles and
sometimes fall outside these guidelines.
 Technology and Values

• E very now and then, a new technology is introduced in our midst,

intended to make our lives easier.
• Some of these technologies do not last for more than a month; others
take hold and become revolutionary in magnitude.
• Those which become successful most often influence society by
creating new possibilities that may raise new moral and ethical
concerns and consequently create vacuums and new dilemmas in that
society’s basic sets of moral values.
• Computer technology has been one of these successful technologies.
• In its very short duration, it has had such a strong impact and influence
on society, and if it continues the present trend unchecked, it is likely
to become one of the greatest revolutions in the history of humankind,
far greater than the agricultural and industrial revolutions.
• Society as a whole seems to be engulfed in this revolution, and no
cultural and/or society norm will, in the end if there is an end, be left
unaffected. S
 Technology and Values
• Successful technological revolutions tend to create tempting situations often
resulting in a loosening of individual moral values, and the computer revolution
tops that list.
• Worldwide cultural, political, and social underpinnings and values are
undergoing a silent, but tremendous change as new computer products come
on the market and the revolution gathers momentum.
• It is moving so fast that it is stripping us of our ability to cope.
• Although we are constantly in need of new moral principles and new ethical
values to fit the changing landscape, we cannot formulate, debate, and put in
place such principles and values fast enough before they are outdated.
• More important still, even if we were able to come up with new values and
moral principles, we would still lack the conceptual models within which such
values and principles can be applied.
• There are many new situations resulting from the computer revolution that are
outdating our basic sets of values. Take, for example, the processes of dealing in
forgeries in monitory currencies. There are laws on the books in almost every
country against forgeries of any kind, let alone forgeries of currencies.
 Technology and Values
• These laws are further reinforced with individual moral values. One can, for example, reproduce and
print millions of almost identical notes of a country’s currency.
• Suppose even further that one produces a software program that reproduces the bank notes and
enriches oneself.

• One’s conscience of course tells the person that what one is doing is wrong, but the new technological
advances are so tempting and making it so easy and so available that one can start rationalizing one’s
acts—I created or bought the program with my own money and did all the work by myself, and after all
it is highly unlikely that I can be caught because people cannot even tell the difference.

• All that one is doing is creating a vacuum in one’s basic set of values, and society needs to find a way to
fill that moral vacuum so as to prevent individuals from taking moral vacations!

• As computer and telecommunication revolutions pick up speed, creating new avenues of use and access
like the Internet and the World Wide Web, thus giving users room and reasons to take moral vacations,
there is an urgent need to do the following:
– Formulate new laws to strengthen our basic sets of values, which are being rendered irrelevant by computer
technology.
– Construct a conceptual model in which the new laws can be applied successfully.
– Launch a massive education campaign to make society aware of the changing environment and the impact such an
environment is having on our basic values.
The End