Ch.

E-403
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN

Lecture # 1
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 1
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Course Description

Introduction to process design and development

General design considerations
Optimal design
Materials of fabrication and their selection
Material transfer handling and equipment design
Heat transfer equipment design
Mass transfer equipment design
Application of computer aided design software
 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)

CLO-1: Create, design, and evaluate alternate processes and

equipment for a chemical process and assess various societal,
environmental, and safety issues associated with such design
CLO-2: Apply knowledge acquired in core Chemical Engineering
courses (e.g., Stoichiometry, Reaction Engineering, Thermodynamics,
and Unit Operations) for selection and design of materials handling,
heat transfer, and separation process equipment.
CLO-3: Understand the concept of heat integration for minimization
of overall energy footprint of a chemical process.
CLO-4: Use process simulation software for process creation and
simulation, equipment sizing and costing, and process optimization
 Grading Breakup

SESSIONAL: 30% [(Quiz = 20 %), (Assignments = 10

%)]
MIDTERM: 30 %
FINAL TERM: 40 %
NOTE:
An attendance of 75% is mandatory to sit in the final
examination.
 BOOKS

Text Book:
“Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers” by M. S.
Peters, K. D. Timmerhaus, and R. E.
West
 Reference Books

“Ludwig’s Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical

Plants” by A. K. Coker
“Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design” by J. R.
Couper, W. R. Penney, J. R. Fair, and S. M.Walas
“Equipment Design Handbook: For Refineries and Chemical
Engineers” by F. L. Evans
“Chemical Process: Design and Integration” by R. Smith
“The Art of Chemical Process Design” by G. L. Wells, and L. M. Rose
“Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Volume 6
 First Week Plan

Introduction: General overall design

considerations: Process design and flow sheet
development, computer aided design, cost
estimation and profitability analysis of
investments, optimum design; practical
consideration and engineering ethics in design
 Introduction

A successful chemical engineer needs more than a

knowledge and understanding of the fundamental
sciences and the related engineering subjects
The engineer must also have the ability to apply
this knowledge to practical situations
Design of new chemical plants and the expansion
or revision of existing ones
 Process Design Development

Inception Procurement
Preliminary evaluation Commissioning
of economics and market Startup and trial runs
Development of data Production
necessary for final design
Final economic
evaluation
Detailed engineering
design
 General overall design consideration

Plant design includes all engineering aspects involved in

the development of either a new, modified, or expanded
industrial plant.
Design engineer
Cost engineer
Process engineer
Plant location, plant layout, materials of construction,
structural design, utilities, buildings, storage, materials
handling, safety, waste disposal, federal, state, and local
laws or codes, and patents.
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 2
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Course Description

Introduction to process design and development

General design considerations
Optimal design
Materials of fabrication and their selection
Material transfer handling and equipment design
Heat transfer equipment design
Mass transfer equipment design
Application of computer aided design software
 Process Design Development

Inception
Preliminary evaluation of economics and market
Development of data necessary for final design
Final economic evaluation
Detailed engineering design
Procurement
Commissioning
Startup and trial runs
Production
 DESIGN-PROJECT PROCEDURE

The development of a design project always

starts with an initial idea or plan.

Types of Designs
• Preliminary or quick-estimate designs
• Detailed-estimate designs
• Firm process designs or detailed designs
Preliminary designs
• Approximate process methods
• Rough cost estimates
Detailed-estimate design
• Detailed analyses and calculations
Firm process design
• Complete specifications
• Accurate costs
 Feasibility Survey
• Raw materials (availability,
quantity, quality, cost)
• Thermodynamics and kinetics of
chemical reactions involved
• Facilities and equipment available
at present
• Facilities and equipment which
must be purchased
• Estimation of production costs
and total investment, Profits
• Materials of construction
• Safety considerations
• Markets (present and future
supply and demand), Competition
• Properties of products (chemical
and physical properties,
specifications)
• Sales and sales service
• Shipping restrictions and
containers
• Plant location
Process Development
 Design

Manufacturing process
Material and energy balances
Temperature and pressure ranges
Raw-material and product specifications
Yields, reaction rates, and time cycles
Materials of construction
Utilities requirements
Plant site
 Construction and Operation

Quick plant startup

Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
or the Critical Path Method (CPM)
Developed primarily to simplify the planning and
scheduling of large and complex projects.
Design, construction, and operations
Class Activity: Find the critical path
Activity Predecessor Duration (day)
A ---- 3
B A 4
C A 2
D B 5
E C 1
F C 2
G D, E 4
H F, G 3
 Design information from the literature

Obtain a recent publication dealing

with the subject under
investigation.
The effective design engineer must
make every attempt to keep an up-
to-date knowledge of the advances
in the field.
Journals
Patent
Handbooks
 FLOW DIAGRAMS

Qualitative
Flow of materials
Unit operations involved
Equipment necessary
Information on operating temperatures and pressures
Quantitative
Quantities of materials required for the process operation
Combined-detail
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 3
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
Chemical Equilibrium
with Application (CEA)
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 4
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Course Description
Introduction to process design and development
General design considerations
Optimal design
Materials of fabrication and their selection
Material transfer handling and equipment design
Heat transfer equipment design
Mass transfer equipment design
Application of computer aided design software
 Week 2 Plan

General design considerations: Health and

safety hazards, importance and objectives of safety,
safety measures in equipment design: Fire and
explosion hazards and prevention, Chemical, toxic,
electrical hazards, control, precautions and
prevention, personnel safety, loss prevention and
safety audit.
Short cuts leads to
Deep cuts
The computer
doesn’t work!
 HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS
Inherent toxicity and duration of exposure
Short-term and long-term effects
Safety hazard
Industrial health and hygiene hazard.
Short-term effect is expressed as LD50
Threshold limit value (TLV)
Sources of Exposure
Inhalation
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
Exposure-Hazard Control
 Fire and Explosion Hazards

Lower flammable limit (LFL)

Upper flammable limit (UFL)
Limiting oxygen index (LOI)
 LOSS PREVENTION
Set of practices employed by the companies
to preserve profit.
Loss represents the financial loss associated
with an accident
The cost of repairing or replacing the
damaged facility
Taking care of all damage claims
Loss of earnings from lost production
 Summary

Identification and assessment of the

major hazards.
Control of the hazards
Control of the process, i.e., prevention of
hazardous conditions
Limitation of the loss when an incident
occurs.
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 5 & 6
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
HAZOP Study:
Hazard and
Operability
Study
 HAZARD

An inherent physical, biological or chemical

characteristic that has the potential for causing
harm to people, the environment, or property.

Hazards are intrinsic to a material or its

conditions of use.
Examples
Hydrogen sulfide – toxic by inhalation
Gasoline – flammable
Moving machinery – kinetic energy
 Hazard Management:
The World as It Was Before

Good people
…….. Doing good
things
 The Rising Case for Change

1984 – Mexico City, Mexico –

Explosion
300 fatalities HAZARD:
(mostly offsite)
$20M damages
Flammable LPG
in tank
 Then the Need is……
The proactive and systematic identification,
evaluation, and mitigation or prevention of
physical, biological or chemical hazards that could
occur as a result of failures in process, procedures,
or equipment.
• HAZOP
 HAZOP Study
Identifying potential hazards and operability problems caused by
deviations from the design intent of both new and existing process
plants.
Oh God!
 What is HAZOP study?

A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured

and systematic examination of a planned or existing
process or operation in order to identify and evaluate
problems that may represent risks to personnel or
equipment, or prevent efficient operation.
A HAZOP is a qualitative technique based on guide-words
and is carried out by a multi-disciplinary team (HAZOP
team) during a set of meetings.
 When to perform a HAZOP?

The HAZOP study should preferably be carried out as early in the design
phase as possible - to have influence on the design. On the other hand; to
carry out a HAZOP we need a rather complete design. As a compromise, the
HAZOP is usually carried out as a final check when the detailed design has
been completed.

A HAZOP study may also be conducted on an existing facility to identify

modifications that should be implemented to reduce risk and operability
problems.
HAZOP Procedure
EXAMPLE:
STORAGE
TANK
Ch.E-403 Chemical Engineering Plant Design
Lecture # 7
Dr. Syed Zaheer Abbas
szabbas@uet.edu.pk
chemicalengineeringpd15@gmail.com

Department of Chemical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Week 3 Plan

Environmental protection and development

of pollution control systems. Thermal pollution
control, toxicological studies, industrial
hygiene, radiation hazards.
• Fault-tree Analysis
• To estimate the likelihood of an accident by breaking it
down into its contributing sequences
• Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
• Applied to a specific equipment in a process. Its
primary purpose is to evaluate the frequency and
consequences of component failures. Its major
shortcoming is that it focuses only on component
failure and does not consider errors in operating
procedures or those committed by operators.
 Environmental protection

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has systematically

been rewriting and tightening many policies and regulations.
Disposal of wastes, both hazardous and nonhazardous
Meet groundwater monitoring and insurance requirements
Effluent controls on wastewater
Deep-well injection
Hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere
Emissions from refineries
Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
Study to predict the effect of a proposed activity/project
on the environment.
EIA compares various alternatives for a project and seeks
to identify the one which represents the best combination
of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
EIA integrates the environmental concerns in the
developmental activities right at the time of initiating for
preparing the feasibility report.
EIA can often prevent future liabilities or expensive
alterations in project design.
3 Core values of EIA
• Integrity: the EIA process should be fair, objective, unbiased and
balanced.
• Utility: the EIA process should provide balanced, credible information
for decision making.
• Sustainability: the EIA process should result in Environmental Safeguard.

• Environmental Assessment has many benefits:

•Protection of Environment •Optimum utilization of resources •Saves
overall time and cost of the project •Promotes community participation
•Informs decision makers •Lays base for environmentally sound
projects.
 EIA Cycles & Procedures

Screening
Scoping & consideration of alternatives
Baseline data collection
Impact Analysis
Mitigation and Environmental Impact statement
Public hearing
Environmental Management Plan
Decision Making
Monitoring the Clearance Condition
 1. Screening
First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project
requires an EIA and if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment
required.
Screening criteria are based upon:
• Scales of investment • Type of development • Location of development

Project Category ‘A’

• Projects in this category typically require an EIA. The project type, scale
and location determine this designation. The potentially significant
environmental issues for these projects may lead to changes in land-
use, as well as changes to social, physical, and biological environment.
Project Category ‘B’
• Only difference between projects in this category and those in
Category ‘A’ is the scale. Larger Power plants fall under category ‘A’,
Medium Sized Power Plants projects are in category ‘B’. These
projects are not located in environmentally sensitive area.
Mitigation measures for these projects are more easily prescribed.

Project Category ‘C’

• This category is for projects that typically do not require an
environmental assessment. These projects are unlikely to have
adverse environmental impacts. 
 2. Scoping

This stage identifies key issues and impact that

should be further investigated. This stage also
defines the boundary and the time limit of the
study. Significance is usually determined through
the socio-economic criteria. After the areas, where
the project could have significant impact, are
identified, 
 3. Baseline Data
Environmental impact can never be predicted with absolute
certainty, and this is all the more reason to consider all possible
factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the
degree of uncertainty.

The following impacts of the projects should be assessed:

AIR
NOISE
LAND
BIOLOGICAL
SOCIO-ECONOMIC 
 4. Assessment of Alternatives

Mitigation Measure and Environmental Impact

Assessment Report For every project possible
alternative should be identified and environmental
attributes compared.
Alternatives for project location & process
technologies 
Development of a Pollution
Control System
 What is a Process?

A process is broadly defined as an operation that uses resources

to transform inputs into outputs.
It is the resource that provides the energy into the process for the
transformation to occur.
Input

Resource Output
PROCESS
 Why Process Control?

Safety First
• People, Environment, Equipment

The Profit Motive

• Meeting final product specs
• Minimizing waste production
• Minimizing environmental impact
• Minimizing energy use
• Maximizing overall production rate
 thermostat
controller
set point TC TT
temperature heat loss
sensor/transmitter (disturbance)

control
signal

fuel flow furnace

valve

Copyright © 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Give example
1. Safety of
Equipment &
personnel T6 PC Vapor
Product
2. Production
Specification of
quality & T1 T5
T2
quantity
3. Operational F1 T4 T3 L1
Constraints
4. Environmental
Regulations F2 F3
5. Economics A1 Liquid
Process Steam product
fluid L. Key
 No flow could
1. Safety of damage the
Equipment & pump T6 PC Vapor
personnel Product

2. Production
Specification of T1 T5
T2
quality & Feed
quantity
F1 T4 T3
3. Operational L1
Constraints
4. Environmental
Regulations F2 F3
A1 Liquid
5. Economics Process product
Steam
fluid L. Key
 A control system is called on to satisfy ……

1. Suppressing the influence of external

disturbances
2. Ensuring the stability of a chemical process
3. Optimizing the performance of a chemical
process
1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
2. Ensuring the stability of a chemical
process
3. Optimizing the performance of a
chemical process
Selection of the most appropriate control device
requires consideration of the pollutant being
handled and the features of the control device.
Often, poor system performance can be attributed
to the selection of a control device that is not
suited to the -pollutant characteristics.
Three methods generally considered for cooling
gases below 500°F are dilution with cool air,
quenching with a water spray, and the use of
cooling columns.
 Air Pollution Abatement

Best available control technology (BACT)

Air pollution control equipment
Those suitable for removing particulates
Removed by mechanical forces
Those associated with removing gaseous pollutants
Chemical and physical means
 Plant location
1. Raw materials availability
2 . Markets
3 . Energy availability
4 . Climate
5 . Transportation facilities
6 . Water supply
7 . Waste disposal
8 . Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
1 0 . Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection
1 2 . Community factors
1. Raw materials availability
2. Markets
3 . Energy availability
4 . Climate
 PROCESS INTEGRATION
AND PINCH TECHNOLOGY
Energy Consumption
Energy Consumption
Energy reserves
 Introduction

Developed countries take energy very much for

granted.
High-tech computer reliant society
USA which consumes approximately 26% of the all
world’s energy, while having only 4.4% of the world’s
population.
Inequalities between rich and poor nations
Climate change
 Energy Consumption and GDP

It is estimated that per capita energy consumption rose

from approximately 4000 kilocalories per day, in the age
of the hunter-gatherer, to approximately 21 000
kilocalories per day, in Europe prior to the Industrial
Revolution
USA, per capita energy consumption has reached
approximately 250 000 kilocalories per day
strong link between per capita energy consumption and
economic growth
 Heat Integration

Substantial reduction in the energy requirements

of a process
In recent years much work has been done on
developing methods for investigating energy
integration.
Efficient design
Trade off between energy and capital cost
 Pinch Technology

The prime objective of pinch analysis is to

achieve financial savings by better process heat
integration (maximizing process-to-process heat
recovery and reducing the external utilities).

Energy Conservation
Minimizing the utility loads
Trade off between energy cost and capital cost
Example: Two stream system
Given Data
Energy Reduction?
Temperature vs Enthalpy
T* interval Temperature (°C)

245 2
235
4
195
185
145
75 3
35
25
1
 T* interval Stream Population
(ΣCPC – Surplus/D
ΔTinterval
Temperature ΣCPH) ΔHinterval eficit
(°C) (°C)
245
2
10 -0.15 -1.5 Surplus
235
40 0.15 6.0 Deficit
195
4 10 -0.1 -1.0 Surplus
185
0.15

0.3
40 0.1 4.0 Deficit
145

0.25
70 -0.2 -14.0 Surplus
75
40 0.05 2.0 Deficit
0.2

35 3 10 0.2 2.0 Deficit

25

1
 T* interval T* interval
Temperature (°C) Hot Utility MW Temperature (°C) Hot Utility MW

0 245
245 7.5
ΔH = -1.5 235 ΔH = -1.5 9.0
235 1.5
195 3.0
195 ΔH = 6.0
-4.5 ΔH = 6.0

185 4.0
185 ΔH = -1.0 -3.5 ΔH = -1.0
145 0
145 -7.5
ΔH = 4.0 ΔH = 4.0
75 14.0
75 6.5
ΔH = - 14.0 35 ΔH = -14.0
35 4.5 12.0
ΔH = 2.0 25 ΔH = 2.0
10.0
25 2.5
ΔH = 2.0 ΔH = 2.0

Cold Utility Cold Utility

Network design above pinch (AP) Network design below pinch (BP)
CPh ≤ CPc CPc ≤ CPh
PINCH
250° 203.3° 106.7°
150°
2 40°
C
10.0MW
200° 150°
4 80°

140° 52.5° 20°

180° 1
8.0MW 17.5MW 6.5MW
205° 140°
230° 3
H
181.7°
7.5MW 7.0MW 12.5MW
Pinch Analysis and
Process Integration
 Setting Energy Targets

The first key concept of pinch analysis is

setting energy targets. “Targets” for energy
reduction have been a key part of energy
monitoring schemes for many years.
Typically, a reduction in plant energy
consumption of 10% per year is demanded.
Good plant vs badly designed plant
 History and Industrial experience

ICI faced a challenge on the crude distillation unit of

an oil refinery. An expansion of 20% was required, but
this gave a corresponding increase in energy demand.
An extra heating furnace seemed the only answer, but
not only was this very costly, there was no room for it
on the plant.
Energy targets were set
Over a million pounds per year
 Site heat and power systems
Process Synthesis
Heat exchanger network

Separation

Reaction
Onion Diagram Chemical De
Synthesis sig
nP
roc
ess
Process Devel.

Heat Recovery

Utility heating/cooling, pumps and compressors

HOW TO DRAW COMPOSITE
CURVES

CLASS ACTIVITY
Draw Composite Curves and Grand
Composite Curves
Choosing ΔTmin
Stream splitting
Example
Example
Example
Algorithm for Splitting
Common Sense Network
Heat Exchanger Network
 TASK

How Splitting is
performed in HEN
 FLOW-SHEETING

Key document in the process

design
Arrangement of the equipment
The stream connections
Stream flow-rates & compositions
Operating conditions
Piping, instrumentation,
equipment design and plant layout
 Calculation procedures used in flow-sheeting
Manual calculation procedures
Tedious and time consuming
Computer aided procedures
Engineering Flow-sheet or
Mechanical Flow-sheet
Piping and instrumentation diagrams
(PID)
Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is often
used for process flow-sheets
 FLOW-SHEET PRESENTATION

1. Block diagrams
Simplest form of presentation
Each block can represent a
single piece of equipment
Limited use as engineering
documents
The blocks can be of any shape

“Complexity Increases
Conceptual
Understanding Increases”
2. Pictorial
Representation
Stylish pictorial form
Used in company
profile/documentations
3. Presentation of stream flow-rates
Tabulate the data in blocks alongside the process stream lines
Each stream line is numbered and the data tabulated at the bottom of the sheet
4. Information to be included
Essential information
Stream composition
The flow-rate of each individual component, kg/h or the stream composition as a
weight fraction.
Total stream flow-rate, kg/h
Stream temperature, degrees Celsius preferred.
Nominal operating pressure (the required operating pressure).
Optional information
Molar percentages composition
Physical property data, mean values for the stream, such as:
Density, kg/m3, viscosity, mN s/m2.
Stream name, a brief, one or two-word, description of the nature of the
stream, for example “ACETONE COLUMN BOTTOMS”, Stream enthalpy, kJ/h.
 5. Layout

The sequence of the main equipment items shown symbolically on the

flow-sheet
The equipment should be drawn approximately to scale.
Drawn roughly in the correct proportion
Lines which are continued over to another are indicated by a double
concentric circle round the line number
The table of stream flows and other data can be placed above or below
the equipment layout.
The stream line numbers should follow consecutively from left to right of
the layout
All the process stream lines shown on the flow-sheet should be
numbered and the data for the stream given.
 6. Precision of data

One decimal place is all that is usually justified by the accuracy

of the flow-sheet calculations
If a stream or component flow is so small that it is less than the
precision used for the larger flows, it can be shown to a greater
number of places.
If the composition of a trace component is specified as a
process constraint, as, say, for an effluent stream or product
quality specification, it can be shown in parts per million, ppm.
Only a trace of an impurity is needed to poison a catalyst
 7. Basis of the calculations

It is good practice to show on the flow-sheet the basis

used for the flow-sheet calculations.
This would include: the operating hours per year; the
reaction and physical yields; and the datum temperature
used for energy balances.
It is also helpful to include a list of the principal
assumptions used in the calculations.
This alerts the user to any limitations that may have to be
placed on the flow-sheet information.
8. Batch processes

Flow-sheets drawn up for batch processes normally show the

quantities required to produce one batch.

9. Services (utilities)

The service connections required on each piece of equipment

should be shown and labeled.
 10. Equipment identification

Each piece of equipment shown on the flow-sheet must

be identified with a code number and name.
The easiest code is to use an initial letter to identify the
type of equipment, followed by digits to identify the
particular piece.
For example, H-heat exchangers, C-columns, R-reactors.
The key to the code should be shown on the flow-sheet.
11. Computer-aided drafting
 Process Synthesis

Chemical and physical Analysis

processing steps to convert
raw materials into desired
products. Synthesis
Number of choices and
combinations of unit Evaluatio
operations n
 Experience is the teacher of everything

Chemical engineers have traditionally synthesized

process flow sheets using;
experience, insight, invention, and sequential
evaluation of alternatives.
 Synthesis of a styrene process

Styrene, the monomer of polystyrene

Has enjoyed strong market growth over the
past two decades.
Benzene and ethylene react to form
ethylbenzene
The ethylbenzene is dehydrogenated to yield
styrene
 Step # 1

Inputs and outputs

Establish whether the value of the reaction products
exceeds the value of the reactants.

C6H5-C2H6 ↔C6H5-C2H3 + H2

Values of $0.42/lb for styrene, $0.25/lb for ethylbenzene,

and $0.30/lb for hydrogen
 Step # 1

On a basis styrene, the value of the

products is

104*0.42 + 2*0.30 = $44.28

While the value of the ethylbenzene is

106*0.25 = $26.50
 Step # 1

At typical process temperatures other reactions

occur, including
• C6H5-C2H5 ↔C6H6 + C2H4
• C6H5-C2H5 + H2↔C6H5-CH3 + CH4
Both reactions consume ethylbenzene without
producing the desired styrene; they also produce
by-products that must be separated from the
product and disposed of or utilized.
 Step # 1

The process feeds are ethylbenzene and steam

and the products are condensed steam, styrene,
benzene, toluene, hydrogen, methane, and
ethylene.
Including the steam, valued at $0.0l/lb, adds
$2.52 to the total feed cost, raising it to $29.02
per 104 lb of styrene product. The value of the
products still exceeds that of the inputs.
 Step # 2

Recycle structure
The product stream contains ethylbenzene, all the
reaction products, by-products, and steam. It is essential
to separate the main product, styrene, from the rest of
this mixture. It is necessary to recover unreacted
reactants and recycle them to the reactor. By-products
must be separated and, if possible, effectively utilized.
The condensed steam must be separated from the
product stream and removed.
Boiling point data
Component Boiling point [°C]
Hydrogen -252.5
Methane -161.5
Ethylene -104
Benzene 80.6
Water 100
Toluene 110.6
Ethyl benzene 136
Styrene 145
 Step # 3

Separation processes
Benzene plus toluene
Ethylbenzene
Styrene
Components with boiling points near ambient
temperature (between, say, 0 and 200°C) and with
adequate differences between their boiling points (at
least 5°C) are usually most economically separated by
distillation.
 Step # 4

Heat Integration
Heat Exchanger Networking
 Material of construction

Severe operating conditions

Corrosion-resistant materials
Economic analysis
 Tensile Test

Most common test for studying

stress‑strain relationship, especially
metals
In the test, a force pulls the material,
elongating it and reducing its diameter
(left) Tensile force applied and (right)
resulting elongation of material
Tensile Test Specimen
 Tensile Test Sequence

(1)No load
(2)Uniform elongation
and area reduction
(3)Maximum load
(4)Necking
(5)Fracture
 ultimate
Stress vs Strain
tensile strength
3 necking
 UTS

E
Slope=
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength 5
y
2 Elastic region
Stress (F/A)

slope=Young’s(elastic) modulus
Plastic yield strength
Region Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region 4
fracture
σ 1
E
ε E
σy Strain ( 
) (e/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
Compression Test
Bending Test
Shear properties
 Material Properties

Characteristics of Material are described as;

 Strength

 Hardness
 Ductility
 Brittleness
 Toughness
 Hardness

 Resistance to permanent indentation

 Good hardness generally means material is
resistant to scratching and wear
 Most tooling used in manufacturing must be
hard for scratch and wear resistance
 THE ADVANCED PROCESS MODELLING
COMPANY

General Process Modelling System

 1989 – 1997 1997 2012
USA London HQ Germany Korea Japan

100s of person-years of R&D Company ‘spun out’

with industry Acquires technology
Saudi Arabia India Thailand Malaysia China
Simulation & modelling, Private, independent company
optimisation, numerical solutions • Software and services (60:40)
incorporated in UK • Major process industry focus – all sectors
techniques, supply chain
• Strong R&D
• Strong commercials

Royal Academy MacRobert Award for Engineering Innovation

UK’s highest engineering award
 PSE Products
The gPROMS product family

The gPROMS platform

Unified modelling platform across
all products

General-purpose Advanced Model Libraries gPROMS platform products

Advanced Process Modelling World-leading models for reaction & Domain-specific tools for specialists
Powerful custom modelling in a separation
flowsheeting environment
General Process Engineering suite
 Modelling and simulation of a buffer tank

Objectives

How to build a model from scratch

How to write equations using the gPROMS
language
How to run a simulation
How to simulate simple operational activities
Inlet flow in known
Outlet flow needs to be determined

Assumptions

The operation of the tank is isothermal.

The tank is well-stirred.
The tank contains a single component in liquid phase.
The cross-section area is constant along the height of the tank.
 Equations
Mass balance
Fin
dM
 Fin  Fout
dt

h M Calculation of liquid level in the tank

M  Ah

Fout
Characterisation of the output flowrate
Fout   h

161
 Parameters and Variables
Parameters
Mass balance Symbol Unit gPROMS identifier Type
dM
 Fin  Fout A m2 Area REAL
dt
α kg s-1 m-0.5 Alpha REAL
Calculation of liquid level
in the tank ρ kg m3 Density REAL

M  Ah Variables
Fin kg s-1 Flow_in Mass_flowrate
Characterisation of the
output flow rate Fout kg s-1 Flow_out Mass_flowrate

Fout   h M kg Mass_holdup Mass

h m Height Length
 Degrees of freedom
Parameter values • 3 equations, 4 variables
• The inlet mass flow rate is constant
at 20 kg/s
• Area of the tank is 1 m2.
• The liquid density is 1000 kg m-3.
Initial conditions
• The outlet flow rate coefficient
(alpha) is 10 kg s-1 m-0.5 • One differential variable
• At the start of the operation, the
liquid level in the tank is 2.1 m.
EXERCISE ON
gPROMS
Examples
Reaction Scheme
Reaction Scheme
Thermodynamic results
Data require
Data require
Data require
Data require
Results
End Term Course
 Expert System

Each problem that we solved became a rule which

served afterwards to solve other problems
 Expert Systems

An expert system is a computer program that is

designed to hold the accumulated knowledge of one
or more domain experts.
Programming computers to make decisions in real-
life situations (for example, some expert systems
help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
Continue….
 Expert system also known are also called
knowledge based system or artificial intelligence
based systems.
 Expert system is a major branch of artificial
intelligence.
 Overview of Expert Systems

Can…

Explain their reasoning or suggested decisions

Display intelligent behavior
Draw conclusions from complex relationships
Provide portable knowledge
A collection of software packages and tools used to
develop expert systems
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Goal of AI

Create technology and machines to

operate in an intelligent manner

1) Reasoning, problem solving

 Step by step algorithm

 Incomplete information (Probability)
ALGORITHEM

A set of steps to accomplish a task

 Computer Algorithm

• Start with input data

Step 1

• Complex calculations
Step 2

• Stop when got the answer

Step 3
Guessing Game: Linear search
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Х2 3 4Х5 6 7Х8 9 1
1 0
Wrong guess. My number is higher than 3

1Х 2 Х 3 Х4 5 6 7 8 9 10Х Х Х
Wrong guess. My number is lower than 8

1Х 2 Х 3 Х4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Х Х Х
Right guess. My number is 6
Route finding
 2) Knowledge representation

 Problem solving machines requires information

 Relationship, properties
 Situations, actions, time data
 Commonsense knowledge
 3) Planning

 A goal without a plan is just a wish

 Set goals and achieve them
 4) Learning

 System improves itself automatically through

experience
 5) Natural learning processing

 Machine should read

and understand
HUMAN LANGUAGE
 Why use Expert Systems?

Experts are not always available.

An expert system can be used
anywhere, any time.
Human experts are not 100%
reliable or consistent
Experts may not be good at
explaining decisions
Cost effective
 Problems with Expert Systems

Limited domain
Systems are not always up to
date, and don’t learn
No “common sense”
Experts needed to setup and
maintain system
Capabilities of Expert Systems

Strategic goal setting Explore impact of strategic goals

Planning Impact of plans on resources

Integrate general design principles and

Design
manufacturing limitations

Decision making Provide advise on decisions

Quality control and monitoring Monitor quality and assist in finding

solutions
Diagnosis Look for causes and suggest solutions
 Components of an Expert System (1)

Knowledge base
• Stores all relevant information, data, rules, cases, and relationships
used by the expert system
Inference engine
• Seeks information and relationships from the knowledge base and
provides answers, predictions, and suggestions in the way a human
expert would
Rule
• A conditional statement that links given conditions to actions or
outcomes
 The Knowledge based
 The main purpose of the knowledge base is to provide
the guts of the expert system the connection between
ideas, concepts, and statistical probabilities that allow
the reasoning part of the system to perform an accurate
evaluation of a potential problem.

 Knowledge based are traditionally described as large

systems of “ if then” statements.
 Components of an Expert System (2)

Fuzzy logic
• A specialty research area in computer science that allows
shades of gray and does not require everything to be simply
yes/no, or true/false
Backward chaining
• A method of reasoning that starts with conclusions and
works backward to the supporting facts
Forward chaining
• A method of reasoning that starts with the facts and works
forward to the conclusions
 Expert Systems Benefits

Increased Output and Productivity

Decreased Decision Making Time

Increased Process(es) and Product Quality

Reduced Downtime

Capture Scarce Expertise

Flexibility

Easier Equipment Operation

Elimination of Expensive Equipment

 Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Lack human common sense needed in some decision making.

Will not be able to give the creative responses that human
experts can give in unusual circumstances.
Domain experts cannot always clearly explain their logic and
reasoning.
Challenges of automating complex processes.
Lack of flexibility and ability to adapt to changing
environments.
Not being able to recognize when no answer is available.
Applications of Expert Systems

Medical system
for diagnosis of
respiratory conditions

Used by geologists to
identify sites for
drilling or mining
 Chapter 11
Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers
(4th Edition, Page # 341 – 352)
 Optimum design and design strategy

Best or most favourable conditions

Cost or profit
Insulation thickness
Optimum thickness of
insulation for a given
steam-pipe installation.
The optimum thickness of
insulation at the minimum
point on the curve
 Procedure With One Variable

Factor being optimized is a function of a single variable.

Obtain the insulation thickness which gives the least total
cost.
The primary variable involved is the thickness of the
insulation
 Fixed charges = ɸ(x) = ax + b
 Cost of heat loss = α(x) = c/x+ d
 Total variable cost = C= ɸ(x) + α(x) = ax + b + c/x+ d
x is the insulation thickness
Analytically
Two Variables
 Chapter 2
Coulson Richardson
(6th Volume)
Complete Chapter except the Unsteady Calculation section
 Flow-sheet calculations on individual units

1. Reactors
• Reactor yield and conversion specified
• If the yields and conversions are known, the stream flows and
compositions can be calculated from a material balance
• Chemical equilibrium
• With fast reactions, the reaction products can often be assumed to
have reached equilibrium.
• The product compositions can then be calculated from the
equilibrium data for the reaction
 EXAMPLE

• The calculation of stream composition from reaction

equilibrium
• Assumption: The outlet composition approaches the
equilibrium composition
• CO2 8.5, CO 11.0, H2 76.5 mol per cent dry gas
• If this is fed to a shift converter at 500K, with a steam
ratio of 3 mol H2O to 1 mol CO,
• Estimate the outlet composition
 Class Activity

• Solubility data:
• EDC in water = 0.86
kg/100 kg
• Water in EDC = 0.16
kg/100 kg
 Fundamentals of material balances

2000 kg of a 5 per cent slurry of calcium hydroxide

in water is to be prepared by diluting a 20 per cent
slurry. Calculate the quantities required. The
percentages are by weight.
 Choice of system boundary

With complex processes, first take the boundary round

the complete process and if possible calculate the flows
in and out. Raw materials in, products and by-products
out.
Select the boundaries to sub-divide the process into
simple stages and make a balance over each stage
separately.
Select the boundary round any stage so as to reduce the
number of unknown streams to as few as possible.
Choice of system boundary
Given Data
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Basis of Calculation

• No hard and fast rules

• Some guide rules are;
• Time: choose the time basis in which the results are to be
presented
• For batch processes use one batch.
• Choose as the mass basis the stream flow for which most
information is given.
• It is often easier to work in moles
• For gases, if the compositions are given by volume, use a volume
basis
 Class Activity

• The feed stream to a reactor contains:

• Ethylene 16 per cent, oxygen 9 per cent, nitrogen 31
per cent, and hydrogen chloride.
• If the ethylene flow is 5000 kg/h, calculate the
individual component flows and the total stream flow.
• All percentages are by weight.
 Algebraic method

• Let the feed rate be

10,000 kg/h;
composition benzene
60%, toluene 30%,
xylene 10%.
• Nv = (Nc × Ns)
• Nd = (Nc × Ns) - Ne
• If the primary function of the column is to separate the
benzene from the other components, the maximum
toluene and xylene in the overheads would be specified;
say, at
• 5 kg/h and 3 kg/h, and the loss of benzene in the
bottoms also specified; say, at not greater than 5 kg/h.
 Chapter 3
Coulson Richardson
(6th Volume)
Start to section 3.12
 CALCULATION OF SPECIFIC
ENTHALPY
• Tabulated values of enthalpy are available only for
the more common materials. In the absence of
published data the following expressions can be
used to estimate the specific enthalpy.
 THE EFFECT OF
PRESSURE ON HEAT
CAPACITY

• Pr: Reduced pressure

• Tr: Reduced temperature
Class Activity
Example
 Solution
• Material balance
• Overall Energy balance
 Heat capacity data

• Basis of calculation
• 25 C and 1 hr
• Heat capacity of Feed, Distillate and Bottom
 QC Calculation

• Reflux ratio = 10
 QB Calculation

• Overall Energy balance

Heat of Reaction
ACID GAS SWEETENING
PROCESS
 Heat Exchangers

Why we need heat

exchangers?
Different types of exchanger
The basics of their design
Some general features of
exchangers
The design process
 What are heat exchangers for?

To get fluid streams to the right temperature for the next
process
Reactions often require feeds at high temperature
To condense vapours
To evaporate liquids
To recover heat to use elsewhere
To drive a power cycle
 Heat utilities

Hot utilities
Boiler generating service steam
Direct fired heaters (furnace)
Electric heaters
Cold utilities
Cooling tower providing service cooling water
Direct air-cooled heat exchanger
 Thermal integration or process integration

Reducing the hot and cold utility needs by

interchanging heat between process streams

If the plant needs are primarily heat, thermal

integration is usually by “Pinch Technology”
Applications of Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchangers prevent
car engine overheating and
increase efficiency

Heat exchangers are used in

Industry for heat transfer

Heat exchangers
are used in AC
and furnaces
 Classification of heat exchangers

In general, industrial heat exchangers have been

classified according to
 Construction
 Transfer processes
 Degrees of surface compactness
 Flow arrangements
 Pass arrangements
 Phase of the process fluids
 Double Pipe

 Simplest type has one tube inside another - inner tube may
have longitudinal fins on the outside

 Normal size
 0.25 to 200m2 (2.5 to 2000 ft2) per unit
 Multiple units are often used
 Built of carbon steel where possible
 Advantages/disadvantages of double-pipe

Advantages
 Easy to obtain counter-current flow
 Can handle high pressure
 Easy to maintain and repair
 Many suppliers

Disadvantage
 Become expensive for large duties
 Scope of double pipe

Maximum pressure

300 bar on shell side

1400 bar on tube side

Temperature range

-100 to 600 °C
 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Size per unit 100 - 10000 ft2 (10 - 1000 m2)

Easy to build multiple units
Made of carbon steel where possible
 Advantages/disadvantages of S & T

Advantages
Extremely flexible and robust design
Easy to maintain and repair
Can be designed to be dismantled for cleaning
Very many suppliers world-wide
Disadvantages
Require large plot area - often need extra space to remove
the bundle
Plate may be cheaper for pressure below 16 bar (240 psia)
and temps. below 200oC (400oF)
Major components
 Shell type
The mechanical design and construction of shell & tube exchangers
is usually based on TEMA standards.

TEMA exchanger designation: Front head – Shell – Rear Head

TEMA Standards
 Shell Types

E – type

F - type
 Shell Types

G – type

H - type
 Selection of Shell Type

E Generally provides the best heat transfer but also the highest shell side pressure drop. Used for
temperature cross applications where pure counter current flow is needed.
F This two pass shell can enhance shell side heat transfer and also maintain counter current flow if
needed for temperature cross applications.
G Will enhance the shell side film coefficient for a given exchanger size.
H A good choice for low shell side operating pressure applications. Pressure drop can be minimized.
Used for shell side thermosiphons.
J Used often for shell side condensers. With two inlet vapor nozzles on top and the single condensate
nozzle on bottom, vibration problems can be avoided.
K Used for kettle type shell side reboilers.
X Good for low shell side pressure applications. Unit is provided with support plates that provides
pure cross flow through the bundle. Multiple inlet and outlet nozzles or flow distributors are
recommended to assure full distribution of the flow along the bundle.
 Summary of Shell Types

E-type shells are standard

G and H-shells are normally only used for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers

J and X-shells are used if allowable pressure drop cannot be achieved in an E-

shell
For services that need multiple shells and removable bundles, F-shells should
be considered as alternative.
K-type is only used as a reboiler
 Tubes Specifications

 Number of Tubes (total)

 Number of Tubes plugged
 Tube Length
 Tube Type
 Tube Outside Diameter
 Tube Wall Thickness
 Wall Specification
 Tube Pitch
 Tube Pattern
 Tube Material
 Tube Surface
 Tube Wall roughness
 Tube cut angle
 Tube Selection

Outside Diameter
TEMA – 9 standard sizes– 6.35 to 50.8 mm (0.25 to 2 in)

In common use

19.05 mm (0.75 in) standard
25.4 mm (1 in) for low tube side pressure drop

Wall thickness
TEMA give recommended values (adequate for normal temperatures and pressures)

For high internal pressure refer to TEMA

For high external pressure refer to pressure vessel codes

Codes refer to minimum (not average) thickness

 Tube Length and Number of Passes

Length
 TEMA standards – 2.44, 3.05, 3.66, 4.27, 4.88 and 6.1 m (8, 10, 12, 14, 16 and 20 ft)

 6.1 m maximum length for petroleum refineries and chemical plants where space restricted.

 For gas plants and special applications much longer lengths are possible – 20 m (60 ft) or
more.
 Watch for transportation problems.

Number of tube side passes

Generally the more the better
 Tube Pattern

Use 900 (or 450) if shell-side cleaning required

Use 300 (or 600) otherwise – higher packing density

300 and 900 are normally used

 Tube Pitch

If shell-side mechanical cleaning required, the clearance

between tubes must be 6.35 mm (0.25 in) or larger

If tube welding is required clearance may have to be

increased

Otherwise use TEMA minimum (1.25 times tube outside

diameter)
 Nozzles/Impingement Protection

Impingement plate
sometimes required

Vapor belts excellent

but expansive
 Baffles

To give cross flow and

support the tubes
 Baffles Specifications
The Baffles screen contains
the following inputs:
 Baffles - Type
 Tubes are in Baffle Window
 Baffle Cut (% diameter)
inner/outer
 Multi-Segmental Baffle starting
Baffle
 Baffle Cut Orientation
 Baffle Thickness
 Baffle Spacing Center-Center
 Baffle Spacing at Inlet
 Baffle Spacing at Outlet
 Number of Baffles
 End Length at Front Head (tube
end to closest baffle)
 End Length at Rear Head (tube
end to closest baffle)
 Distance between baffles at
central inlet/outlet for G, H, J
shells
 Distance between Baffles at
Center of H shell
 Baffle OD to Shell ID diametric
 Baffle cut

Single segmental 15% - 45%

Double segmental 22% - 42%

Maximum to ensure full tube support is 45%

Minimum to ensure good shell-side flow distribution is 15%

Rule of thumb to equalize the cross flow and window flow

areas
 Baffle Spacing
Segmental Baffle spacing

 20% of shell diameter

 Max. baffle spacing is controlled the maximum unsupported length given in TEMA &
Vibration analysis

Maximum baffle spacing usually half maximum unsupported length (TEMA)

No problem with ‘No tube in window’ as intermediate support can be used

Minimum spacing recommended by TEMA is 50.8 mm (2 in)

Small baffle spacings (<0.2 times shell diameter) can reduce the cross flow fraction due to
leakage
 Leakage and Bypass

Leakage and bypass reduce the cross flow and hence lower the coefficient

Also cause axial mixing which may reduce the mean temperature difference
(MTD) with close temperature approach

Sealing strips often used to reduce by pass

 Allocation of Fluids

Dirty stream – tube-side

High pressure stream – tube-side

Special material required – tube-side

Fluid with low coefficient – Shell-side