Sampling designs

Sampling design
What is it?
– Sampling is a statistical practice used to select individual
observations from the target population.

– The selected individual observations constitutes a subset

of the target population called a sample.

– Sampling determines whether or not research findings

can be generalizable to the target population.

– Sampling cannot be done without a sample size.

 Sample size
Determining of the sample size is based on at least four
things:

– The purpose of the study, population size, and the

acceptable sampling error.

– The need to generalize results (sample representativeness)

– Data analysis plan and methods such as the use of

inferential statistical methods.

– Most of all whether undertaking a qualitative or

quantitative study.
• Confidence level
• Degree of variability (homogeneity VS heterogeneity of attributes
 Criteria for determining Sample size

Issues to consider
– Size of study population (Census for small populations)
– Previous studies (literature review)
– Published sample tables (gives recommended SS for different
population sizes
– Calculated sample size
– Costs implications of research

Formulas for calculating sample size

– Kish
– Cochrane
– Fisher
– Mugenda
– etc
 Issues to consider in sampling
 Before selecting a sample, the following issues should be
taken in account:
– The population of interest must be clearly defined
indicating the criteria of inclusion and exclusion

– The population is defined as an aggregate of a

homogeneous or heterogeneous population (having one
or more characteristics).
Sampling structure

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

6
 Sampling designs
This must be consistent with the research design.

Two types of sampling designs:

– Probability sampling design
• Every unit of the population has a known probability of being
included in the sample;
• Selection in the sample is by chance; and
• Eliminates bias in the selection process.

– Non Probability sampling design

• Every unit of the population does not have the same probability of
being included in the sample;
• Selection into the sample is determined by the researcher; and
• Open to selection bias.
 Probability sampling design
There four main methods of probability sample design:
– Simple random sampling

– Systematic sampling

– Stratified sampling
• Proportionate
• Disproportionate

– Cluster sampling

A brief description of each sampling method is provided.

 Simple random sampling
Main objective is to ensure all population elements have
the same and equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

Procedure depends on the size of the sample frame:

– use of table of random numbers;
– use of computer generated random number; or
– use of the lottery method.

Can sample with or without replacement

– With replacement: Probability of selection is the same
– Without replacement: Probability of selection are different
 Stratified sampling
Sometimes called "proportional" or "quota"
random sampling.

Guiding principles:
– Population is divided into mutually
exclusive categories called strata.

– A random sample is selected from each

stratum by the use of simple random
sampling or a systematic sampling.
 Stratified sampling
 Two types of stratified sampling
– Proportionate: Each sampling stratum is
representative of its proportion in the population.
– Disproportionate: The proportion of sampling
strata is not representative of the population from
which it is drawn.
• Used to ensure that cases from smaller strata are
included in sufficient number to gain statistical power
necessary to make comparisons.

Facilitates comparisons between strata.

 Stratified sampling
Conditions of use:
– Variability within strata is low
-homogeneous

– Variability between strata is large-

heterogeneous

– Criterion for stratification is highly

correlated with the dependent variable.
Example: Stratified Random Sampling
SEX

Patients

Male Female

Heterogeneous

Homogeneous Homogeneous
 Stratified Random Sampling
Place of residence
Clients

Urban Rural
Strata

Heterogeneous

Homogeneous Homogeneous
 Systematic sampling
Guiding principle:
– This is a method which relies on arranging the target population in a
sequential order and selecting the elements at regular intervals.

– It involves a random start and continues with the selection of every

nth element in the sample frame.

– The nth element falls on the interval which is obtained by diving the
total number of elements by the sample size.
– Steps:
• Population is divided by number of cases required for the sample,
yielding the sampling interval (k=N/n).
• A number less than or equal to the sampling interval is selected
randomly to identify the first case to be sampled
• Every nth case is selected, where n is the sampling interval
 Cluster sampling
This is a sampling design in which the target population is
divided into mutually exclusive clusters or areas.

Each cluster is a microcosm of the population.

A subset of the clusters is selected randomly for the sample.

If the number of elements in the subset of clusters is larger

than the desired sample, the clusters may be subdivided to
form a new set of clusters and subjected to a random
selection process.
 Multi-stage sampling
 A complex form of Cluster sampling in which sampling takes
place in two or more stages.
– Clusters at first stage are primary sampling units
– Clusters at second stage are secondary sampling units,
etc.
For example:
• First stage selection of districts
• Second stage selection of sub-counties
• Third stage selection of villages
• Fourth stage selection of household
 The more clusters selected with the fewest individuals in
each, the more representative the sample

 The more internally homogenous the clusters, the fewer

elements are needed per
 Non Probability sampling
 Appropriate only for qualitative research.
– This is a sampling design in which the sample is not representative of
the target population.

– In this type of samples, the result from the sample cannot be

generalized to the whole population.

– Data from nonrandom samples are not appropriate for analysis by

inferential statistical methods.

– The sample must be able to represent salient issues/characteristics

about the population of study.

– Sample size taken until point of theoretical saturation.

 It is useful in preliminary or exploratory research.
 Non Probability sampling
Sample size is usually small to allow in-
depth exploration and understanding.

Expertise in evaluating the quality of

information and methods of data
collection are important considerations.

In practice, qualitative sampling usually

requires a flexible and pragmatic
approach to sampling.
 Non Probability sampling methods
Three common types of none probability
sampling methods

- Purposive sampling

- Convenience sampling

- Snowball sampling
 Purposive sampling technique
 This is a sample selected at the discretion of the researcher based
on the interest of the study.

 Each element is selected for a purpose, usually because of unique

position or characteristics of the sample elements such as:
- Knowledge of area/issue/situation under study
- Willingness to participate
- Representativeness of range of points of view

 Sampling continue until:

- Completeness: overall sense of meaning of a concept, theme, or
process has been achieved.

- Saturation: confidence that you are learning little that is new from
subsequent interviews.
 Convenience
This is a sample where inclusion is based on the availability of
the participants.

Also known as available sampling, accidental sampling, and

haphazard sampling.

– It always yields a biased sample

– Eg. Asking any taxi driver about accident expectancy in the park

Useful in a new research setting and in exploratory studies

Saves time, money, and effort; but could result in poor quality
data; lowest credibility.
 Snowball
 This is used when a sample requires participants with
specific characteristics who are difficult to locate or
identify.

 It is commonly used to conduct research among hard to

reach individuals who are engaged in stigmatized
behaviours or activities.

 Once an individual with the desired characteristic is

found, that individual is used to identify and recruit
other individuals with the desired characteristics in the
sample.
– Respondent-driven sampling: respondents are given an
incentive to recruit peers into the sample.
 Expert/Key informant sampling
Similar to purposive sampling.
Key informants, as a result of their personal
skills, or position within a society, are able to
provide more information and a deeper insight
into what is going on around them.

Characteristics of an "ideal" key informant:

– Role in community
– Knowledge
– Communicability
 Criteria sampling
All cases that meet a set of criteria are
selected. In criterion sampling it is important
to select the criteria carefully, so as to define
cases that will provide detailed and rich data
relevant to the research problem.

– For example, all students who report the same

complaint about a staff member.
Discussions