CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL BONDING

TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING

• Metal + non-metal
(ē transfer & ionic bonding)
– Metal atom (↓IE) loses ē
– Non-metal atom (↑EA) gains ē
• Non-metal + non-metal
(ē sharing & covalent bonding)
• Metal + metal
(ē pooling & metallic bonding)
 LEWIS ELECTRON-DOT SYMBOLS
• Element symbol represent nucleus/inner ē & the surrounding dots
represent v.e
• V.e involved in chemical bonding

How to write?
1. Identify no. of v.e
2. Place 1 dot at a time on the four side of the element
symbol (top, tight, bottom, left)
3. Pair up the dots until all are used
Information from Lewis Symbols?
Element in the SAME group:-
•Similar v.e configuration
 OCTET RULE
• An atom other than H tends to form bonds (by losing
or gaining or sharing ē) until it is surrounded by 8 v.e
• The rule works MAINLY for element in P2
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF IONS
Atoms ay lose/gain enough ē so as to forms stable
NOBLE GAS ion with octet (or duplet) configuration
CONFIGURATION

The (n-1) d10 configuration of a p-block metal atom

PSEUDONOBLE GAS that empties its outer level
CONFIGURATION

Some transition metal atoms from cations that

HALF-FILLED have ē configuration with half-filled d orbital (d5)
ORBITALS
IONIC/ELECTROVALENT BOND
• Transfer of electron between metal & non-metal
• Total no of ē lost by metal atoms = total no of ē
gained by non-metal atoms
• Ways to show ē transfer:-
– Electron configuration

– Orbital diagrams

– Lewis ē dot symbol

 COVALENT BOND
• Formed when 2 atoms shares ē to form molecule

BOND LENGTH:
distance b/w nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms in a
molecule

For a given pair of atoms,

Bond length: single < double < triple

Bond order ↑, shorter bond, stronger bond

COORDINATE /DATIVE COVALENT BOND

Forms when 1 of the atoms donates both ē
 LEWIS STRUCTURE RESONANCE STRUCTURE
2-dimensional structural formula 2/more Lewis structure for a single
consist of electron-dot symbols dat molecule dat x be represented
show each atom & its neighbours, the accurately by 1 Lewis structure
bonding pairs & lone pairs dat filled
each atom’s outer shell BEST RESONANCE STRUCTURE
• All zero formal charge
• Small formal charge
Higher
priority • Negative formal charges
are placed on the more
electronegative atoms
FORMAL CHARGE No of valence e
Difference b/w the v.e in an isolated Be, Mg, Ca G2 2 v.e
atom & no of ē assigned to that atom B, Al G13 3 v.e
in a Lewis structure
C, Si G14 4 v.e
Formal charge:
no of v.e – no lone pair ē – no of bond N, P G15 5 v.e
O, S G16 6 v.e
Halogen G17 7 v.e
 EXCEPTION TO OCTET RULE
INCOMPLETE OCTET
• Ē-defient molecules [Central atoms have fewer than 8 ē around them]
Example:

ODD ē MOLECULES : FREEE RADICALS

•Contain unpaired ē
•Most have a central atom from an odd-numbered group such as N (G15) & Cl (G17)
Example:

EXPANDED OCTET
•Central atoms have more than 8 ē around them
•Normally from P3 or ↑ - d orbital available
Example:
 KEEP IN MIND!
• Element P3 or higher can form compounds dat have both
octet & expanded valence shell

• Never expand atoms of P1 & P2 [C,N,O] – they must be

OCTET
COVALENT CHARACTER OF Be, B, Al
• A metal & a non metal have relatively large ∆EN (difference ∆EN) & typically forms
an ionic compound

EXAMPLE:
NACl ∆EN =2.1 →more ionic charater

• Compounds with relatively small ∆EN such as AlCl₃, BeCl₃ & BF₃ show covalent
character

EXAMPLE:
AlCl₃ ∆EN =1.5 → more covalent character
(↓ionic character)

• As ∆EN smaller, the bond becomes more covalent

 VSEPR THEORY
(valence-shell ē-pair repulsion theory)
• Funtion: to predict molecular shape from Lewis
structure
• Each group of v.e around central atom is located as
far away as possible from the others in order to
minimize repulsion
• ē GROUP: ē-pair/lone ē dat occupy localized region
around the central atom
• Following count as ē GROUP
– Bonding pair (single/double/triple=count as 1 )
– ē pair
– Lone ē
 5 BASIC MOLECULAR SHAPES
•Linear (180ᵒ)
•Trigonal planar (120ᵒ)
•Tetrahedral (109.5ᵒ)
•Trigonal bipyramidal (90ᵒ,120ᵒ)
•Octahedral (90ᵒ)
ē GROUP ARRANGEMENT
• 2ē-groups → linear
•3ē-groups → trigonal planar
•4ē-groups → tetrahedral
•5ē-groups → trigonal bipyramidal
•6ē-groups → octahedral

RULES USING VSEPR THEORY

•Double bond & triple bond bonds can be treated like single bond
(approximation) → 1ē-group
•Order of ē-group repulsion:
Lone pair-lone pair > Lone pair-bonding pair > Bonding pair-bonding pair

GUIDELINES FOR APPLYING VSEPR THEORY

1. Write Lewis structure to see the no of ē groups –bonding & lone pair
at the central atom
2. Determine the ē group arrangement
3. Predict the ideal bond angle & any deviation caused by lone pairs
4. Draw & name the molecular shape by counting the bonding groups
 ē ē group General Bond Type of
Molecular geometry
group arrangement formula angle Hybridisation
LINEAR

2 Linear AX₂ 180⁰ sp

TRIGONAL PLANAR

AX₃ 120⁰

Trigonal
3 sp²
planar BENT (V-SHAPED)

AX₂E
 ē ē group General Bond Type of
group arrangement formula Molecular geometry angle Hybridisation
TETRAHEDRAL

AX₄ 109.5⁰

TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL

<109.5⁰
4 Tetrahedral AX₃E (107.3⁰) sp³

BENT (V-SHAPED)

AX₂E₂ <109.5⁰
 ē ē group General Molecular geometry Bond Type of
group arrangement formula angle Hybridisation
TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL
90⁰,
AX₅ 120⁰

SEESAW

<90⁰,
AX₄E
<120⁰

5 Trigonal sp³d
bipyramidal T-SHAPED

AX₃E₂

LINEAR

AX₂E₃
 ē ē group General Bond Type of
Molecular geometry
group arrangement formula angle Hybridisation
OCTAHEDRAL

AX₆ 90⁰

SQUARE PYRAMIDAL

<90⁰
6 Octahedral AX₅E sp³d²

SQUARE PLANAR

AX₄E₂ 90⁰
 MOLECULAR POLARITY
• Molecular with a net imbalanced of charge
• There are ē rich region (δ⁺) & ē poor region (δ⁻)

BOND POLARTITY DIPOLE MOMENT

•Atoms with different electronegativities •A quantitative measure of
from polar bond bonds molecular polarity
•Depicted as a polar arrows ( ) μ= Qxr
Q: charge
r: distance b/w charges
1 D(Debye): 3.36x10⁻³ᴼcm

RESULTANT (NET) DIPOLE MOMENT FACTORS AFFECT THE

• Determined by molecular shape & bond POLARITY OF MOLECULE
polarity • Shape of molecule
Resultant dipole moment > 0 →polar • The difference in EN btw
Resultant dipole moment < 0 → non-polar atoms in a bond
 Determine the polarity
NON POLAR POLAR
MOLECULE/COMPOUND MOLECULE/COMPOUN
• Non polar bond D
• Basics shape • Polar bond
– Linear • Lone pair at central atom
– Trigonal planar EXCEPT
– Tetrahedral – AX₄E₂[Square planar]
– Triginal bipyramidal – AX₂E₃ [linear]
– Octa hedral
**all surrounding atoms are same

Factors of polarity:
molecular shape & electronegativity
ORBITAL OVERLAP & HYBRIDIZATION
• VSEPR: predict molecular shapes by assuming that ē
groups tend to minimize their repulsions
• But, it does not tell how those shapes (which is
observed experimentally) can be explained from the
interactions of atomic orbitals
VALENCE BOND (VB) THEORY
• Covalent bonds are formed by sharing ē from
overlapping atomic orbitals
 DIRECT OVERLAP OF s & p ORBITAL
• Atoms in simple molecules or ions such as H₂, HF, N₂,
etc. Use pure s and/or p orbitals in forming covalent
bonds
• Example:
H₂ HF F₂
 HYBRIDISATION
• Mixing of 2/more orbitals to form a new set of
equivalent hybrid orbitals
• The orbitals is more stable bonds & are
consistent with the observed molecular shape
• Determining hybrid orbitals:
Molecul
ar shape
Molecul Lewis &e Hybrid
ar shape structure group orbitals
arrange
ment
 TYPES OF HYBRID ORBITALS
ELECTRON
TYPE EXAMPLE ē GROUP ARRANGEMEN
T
sp BeCl₂ 2 Linear
sp² BF₃ 3 Trigonal planar
sp³ CH₄ 4 Tetrahedral
Trigonal
sp³d PCl₅ 5
bipyramidal
 Sigma(σ) Bond
•Formed by end-to-end
overlapping of atomic
orbitals
•Has highest ē density along
the bond axis
•All single bonds are σ bond
Pi(ᴫ) Bond
•Formed by side-to-side
overlapping of atomic
orbitals
•Each double bond alwez
have 1σ bond & 1ᴫ bond
•Each triple bond alwez have
1σ bond & 2ᴫ bond
 Formation sp Hybridization

v.ē in
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp hybridization:

Each bond formed by:

Overlap of 1 hybrid of atom & 1 orbital of atom

Bond angle:
ē group arrangement:
Molecular shape:
 Formation sp² Hybridization

v.ē in
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp² hybridization:

Each bond formed by:

Overlap of 1 hybrid of atom & 1 orbital of atom

Bond angle:
ē group arrangement:
Molecular shape:
 Formation sp³ Hybridization

v.ē in
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp³ hybridization:

Each bond formed by:

Overlap of 1 hybrid of atom & 1 orbital of atom

Bond angle:
ē group arrangement:
Molecular shape:
 Formation sp³d Hybridization

v.ē in
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp³d hybridization:

Each bond formed by:

Overlap of 1 hybrid of atom & 1 orbital of atom

Bond angle:
ē group arrangement:
Molecular shape:
 Formation sp³ d²Hybridization

v.ē in
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp³d² hybridization:

Each bond formed by:

Overlap of 1 hybrid of atom & 1 orbital of atom

Bond angle:
ē group arrangement:
Molecular shape:
 FORMATION OF BONDS IN C₂H₄
ETHYLENE(CH₂ CH₂)
v.ē in C
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp³ hybridization:
 FORMATION OF BONDS IN C₂H₂
ACETYLENE(CH CH)
v.ē in C
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp hybridization:
 FORMATION OF BONDS IN CO₂
v.ē in C
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp hybridization:
 FORMATION OF BONDS IN C₆H₆
v.ē in C
Ground state:

Promotion of ē

sp² hybridization:
 TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
VAN DER WAALS FORCE
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE DISPERSION (LONDON) FORCE
•Attractive force b/w polar molecules •Results from instantaneous dipole & induced
•The + pole of 1 molecule attract the – pole of dipole
another •Very weak but exist in ANY particles
INSTANTANEOUS DIPOLE
•If size/Mr are almost SAME An atom/molecule with separation of charge
d.moment↑ D.D force↑ B.P↑ produced by a momentary displacement of ē
from their normal distribution
more polar molecule:
↑d-d force INDUCED DIPOLE
↑ energy needed to separate them The separation of + & - charges in a neutral
↑B.P atom/ a non polar molecule caused by nthe
HYDROGEN BOND proximity of an ion/ a polar molecule/
instantaneous dipole
•Special type of d-d force b/w partially + of
polar bond & partially – lone pair ē on F,O,N STRENGTH INFLUENCED BY
of another molecule •Polarizability(Mr/size)
EFFECT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES •Molecular shape
•BP
•SOLUBILITY
•DENSITY
 STRENGTH OF LONDON FORCE INFLUENCED BY
Molar mass,Mr Molecular shape
↑Mr For non polar with the same Mr:
↑size Surface area↑
↑No atom straight>branched molecule
↑no of electron spherical molecule make less contact than
↑polarizability cylindrical molecule
↑dipersion force Contact between molecule↑
↑BP Dispersion force↑
BP↑

DISPERSION(LONDON) VS DIPOLE-DIPOLE SUMMARY OF VAN DER WAALS FORCES

•LF exist between ALL PARTICLES
MOLECULE CCl₄ Cl₂ ClNO N₂ •D-D forces exist ONLY POLAR molecules
Mr (g/mol) 154 70.9 65.5 28 When comparing substances of roughly
CCl₄greatest force  strongest L.F (↑Mr) comparable Mr
d-d forces can affect properties
Cl₂ & ClNO  same Mr (difference <10g/mol)
Cl₂ =non polar ClNO=polar When comparing substances of different Mr
So, ClNO is stronger than Cl₂ due to stronger  LF are more significant than d-d forces
IMF ( additional d-d forces)

N₂ has the lowest coz it has smallest LF (↓Mr)

 EFFECT OF HYDROGEN BONDING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
BOILING POINT DENSITY SOLUBILITY
•Coz much higher bp if the •As a result of geometry ‘like disolve like’ rule
trend ware based on Mr arrangement of H bonds in
H₂O, ice has an open, •Substance with similar type
•Much higher energy needed hexagonally shaped crystal of intermolecular forces
to break the bond b4 surface dissolves in each other
molecules can separate &
enyer the gas phase •When H₂O freeze(ice), •H bonds in H₂O & in simple
V↑density↑ice float in H₂O alcohol are similar type &
Ethanol strength, thus they can
Mr: 46 g/mol substitute each other
BP: 78˚C •Ice layer forms on surface •E.g: butanol is soluble in
of lake insulates H₂O water
Dimethyl ether beneath & maintain a
Mr: 46 g/mol ↑enough temperature to
BP: -25˚C sustain aquatic life

Ethanol has highest BP

because it can form H bond
among its molecule
 METALLIC BOND

ELECTRON SEA MODEL

• All metal atoms in the sample contribute their v.e to form
an ē sea dat is delocalized throughout the substance
• The v.e(‘ē sea ‘) are shared among all atoms in the
substance
• Mobile ‘ē sea ‘ is acting as glue bonding nucleus (+ charge)
from repelling each other
 MODEL EXPLAIN PROPERTIES OF METAL
Moderate MP Highest BP Malleable & Ductile
•Attraction betweeen moveable cations •When a piece of metal deformed by a
(nuclei) & the mobile ē NO NEED to be hammer, the metal ions (nuclei) slide past
broken during melting each other through ē sea to new lattice
•However, attraction between moveable point
cations (nuclei) & the mobile ē NEED to be •So metal ions (nuclei) xrepel each other
broken during boiling
Why metal can conduct hea t& electricity well in both solid & liquid states? 
•Metal atom has delocalized (mobile) electron

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF

METALLIC BOND
Valence electron Size of atom
v.e↑ Size ↓
Delocalized e ↑ Attraction btw nucleus-delocalized e↑
Attraction btw nucleus-delocalized e↑ Strength of metallic bond ↑
Strength of metallic bond ↑