ANCIENT ART

Prehistoric: Paleolithic to
Bronze Age
In order to understand the
development of art we must
first look at the movement of
people across the world

• Humans began moving

out of Africa around 1
million years ago

• As they moved out of Africa,

one group went towards
Europe while another went
towards Asia

• Humans moved into Europe

and began settling around
690,000 years ago

• Humans moved into Asia

and began
settling around 700,000
years ago

• Humans then began moving

• In Europe humans began to
create
settlements

• These settlements were

based around areas with
food sources, and water

• People in these settlements

traded with one another
and gradually started
developing their own culture

• These cultural systems

became unique to the area
and the people, and
therefore once art was
developed it was unique to
that region

• This process was not

found only in Europe

• This development
happened at different
times across the world,
• This time in human
history is divided into 3
separate time periods

• Paleolithic (Old Stone

Age) (2.6 million
years ago – 12,000
years ago)
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone
Age) (20,000 BCE –
9,500 BCE)
• Neolithic (New Stone
Age) (10,200 BCE
– 2,000 BCE)
• During the time of early
human settlement
humans were Hunter &
Gatherers

• As they became settled

into communities
(Sedentary Life) they
started to experiment
more with the concept of
art, religion, and
architecture

• The development of art,

 Early
Medieval art
• The art of the early Middle Ages
took shape as Early Christian art
absorbed a new influence: the art
of the invaders.
• Many nomadic peoples
traveled across the Eurasian
grasslands, which extend
from northwest China to
central Europe.
• Their migration occurred over a
long period that began in the 2nd
millennium BC and lasted well into
the Middle Ages.
• These “barbarians” were
considered a constant threat and
Hadrian’s Wall + Great Wall of
China were both built to keep
them out.
• The meeting of decorative
nomadic style with Christianity
 The
Irish
• The Irish had never been part
of the Roman Empire, and in
the 5th century they were
Christianized without first
becoming Romanized.
• During the chaotic centuries
that followed the fall of Rome,
Irish monasteries became the
major centers of learning and
the arts in Europe
• and they produced numerous
hand-
lettered copies of religious
manuscripts.
 Book of
Kells
Ireland
late 8 Century
th

Inks + Pigments on Vellum

• The initial letters in these manuscripts

were increasingly embellished over
time, moving first into the margin and
then onto a separate page.

• The initial page is known as the “Chi-

Rho monogram” because it is
composed of the first two letters of
Christ in Greek (XP) and is used to
represent Christ or Christianity.

• Except for XP and two Latin words

beginning the story of Christ’s birth,
most of the page is filled with a rich
complexity of spirals and tiny
interlacings.
 THE MIDDLE
AGES400-
(EUROPE)
1400
AD

The main purpose for drawing was

to produce art mainly to glorify
God and to teach religion.
Painting and drawing merged in the
illustration of Bibles and prayer books
produced by monks, called
Illuminated Manuscripts
These beautifully decorated
manuscripts were hand-
 Medieval
Period
410-1400
■ Christianity became the state church of the Roman
Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 CE,
when Emperor Theodosius I made it the Empire's
sole authorized religion
■ The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast
scope of time and place, over 1000 years of art in
Europe, and at times the Middle East and North Africa.
■ Medieval life was consumed by superstition, unsanitary
conditions and an extreme form of Christianity.
■ Medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of
the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the
early Christian church
 The revival of trade in Europe helped bring an end to the Middle Ages & gave rise to the Renaissance

The rise of cities

brought artists
together which led
to new techniques &
styles of art.

Increased trade gave rise to Italian city-states & a wealthy middle class of bankers &
merchants emerged. They then started patronizing art and artists.
 The most important Italian city-state was Florence. In this wealthy trade city,
Renaissance began.

Florence was home to

the Medici family, the wealthiest & most powerful bankers in Europe. The Medici used their
wealth to commission art for themselves &
to beautify Florence .
 Florence under the Medici

The Medici paid Filippo Brunelleschi to design the enormous octagonal

dome of Florence Cathedral, also called the Duomo. It was completed in
1436. The dome was considered as one of the most impressive
The Medici Palace
engineering Medici
and artistic feats since Roman Chapel
times.
MANNERISM
(1520 – 1600)

Made by: Manisha Khandelwal

 Timeline

Baroque
Medieva

Modern
Pre Neo-
Gothic/
Romanesqu Renaissance Classicism
l

Romanesque
e Romanticism

500 1000 1400 1600 1700 1900 2000

1400 1500 1520 1600

 Introduction
 Mannerism comes from Italian word maniera
means “style” or “manner”.
 Mannerism is a style emerged around 1520 to
1600 in Italy.
 By the end of high renaissance, young artists
experienced a crisis : it seemed that everything
that could be achieved was already achieved. No
more difficulties, technical or otherwise,
remained to be solved. Everything reached to
perfection.
 The young artists needed new goal, and they
sought new approaches. At this point
MANNERISM started to emerge.
 The Michelangelo was one of the great role
models of mannerism.
 PLACE OF HARMONY AND ORDER OF
RENAISSANCE
Mannerism originated as a reaction to the harmonious
classicism and the idealized naturalism of high
Manneris marenaissance
rt.
 Elongated feature. Eg Madonna with
long neck.
 Emphasis on graceful but
strange manner with elongated
limbs, small heads, and stylized
special feature , while their poses
seem difficult or contrived.
 Mannerist pushing exaggeration and
contrast to great limits with very bright
vivid colors and high contrast which
results in strange, intense and unnatural
colors emphasis on abnormalities of
scale.
Renaissance
 Figures in proportion.
 Emphasis on composition of
elements with balance,
symmetry and rational
composition.
 flattened and obscured so that
the figures appear as
decorative arrangement of
forms.
 Classical form
 Normal form of colour is used,
which is pleasant to look.
 It describes a fairly complex idiom and
focuses on painting, sculpture, as well as
architecture.
 It reflects the tensions of the age notably the
desire of the Catholic church in Rome to
reassert itself in the wake of the Protestant
Reformation which is almost the same with
Catholic-Reformation Art of the period
 It was a period of artistic styles in
exaggerated motion, drama, tension, and
grandeur. The style started in Rome,
Italy and spread to most of Europe.
 The Roman Catholic Church highly
encouraged the Baroque style to propagate
Christianity while the aristocracy used
Baroque style for architecture and arts to
impress visitors, express triumph, power,
and control.
 Baroque sculpture, typically larger than life
size, is marked by a similar sense of
dynamic movement, along with an active use
of space.
 Baroque architecture was designed to create
spectacle and illusion. Thus the straight
lines of the Renaissance were replaced with
flowing curves.
 MICHELANGELO MERISI or AMERIGHI DA
CARAVAGGIO (1571-1610)
 He was better known as Caravaggio
 He was an Italian artist who wanted to
deviate from the classical masters of
renaissance.
 He was an outcast in his society, because of
his own actions and the lack of modesty
and reverence for religious subjects in his
own paintings.
 He started out as a specialist in his paintings
of still life, especially of fruits.
 His models at this period were either himself
or young persons who have an air of being
promising but wicked.
Nageen Raja
Asma Javed
 Rococo Art
Name: LATE BAROQUE
Or
igin: Paris, France
Developed in: 18th century
Da
te: 1700-1750
Derived from: French word
“ROCAILLE” meaning STONE or RUBBLE.
Rococo is an artistic movement and style which
has affected many aspects of art:
Sculpture
Painting
Architecture
Interior
Furniture
Fashion
Ceramics
Jewellery
Literature
Music
Theater
 Characteristics:
jocular, florid and graceful approach to Baroque
Vertical lines were avoided
Angles were softened
style was ornate, used light colors,
asymmetrical designs, curves and gold.
playful and witty themes.
produced flowing, giddy, visually spectacular
carving
elegant and ornate furniture, small sculptures,
ornamental mirrors, and tapestry complementing
architecture, reliefs, and wall paintings.
ROMANTICISM
TIME PERIOD: 1789-1848
AP ART HISTORY

SS
KEY IDEAS
• Romanticism is heavily influenced by a spirit of individuality and a freedom
of expression unique up until this time.
• Romantics enjoy the sublime in nature and the revolutionary in politics.
• Romantic painters explore the unconscious world of dreams and
fantasies.
• A new art form called photography is invented; its immediacy
makes it an
overnight sensation.
• Architecture revives historical forms, especially from the Middle
Ages.
• The romantic artist was a troubled genius, deeply affected by all around
him or her; temperamental, critical, and always exhausted.
• Seeking pleasure in things of greatest refinement or adventures of
audacious daring, the Romantic was a product of extremes of human
endeavor.
SS
ARCHITECTURE
• CHARLES BARRY AND AUGUSTUS PUGIN, THE HOUSES OF
PARLIAMENT, 1836-1860
• CHARLES GARNIER, THE OPERA, 1861-1874, PARIS
• HENRI LABROUSTE, BIBLIOTEQUE SAINT GENEVIEVE, 1843-1850,
PARIS
• SIR JOSEPH PAXTON, THE CRYSTAL PALACE, 1850-1851, LONDON

SS
PAINTINGS
• FRANCISCO DE GOYA, THE SLEEP OF REASON PRODUCES MONSTERS, 1799.
ETCHING AND AQUATINT
• FRANCISCO DE GOYA, FAMILY OF CHARLES IV, 1800,
• FRANCISCO DE GOYA, THIRD OF MAY, 1808, OIL ON CANVAS
• FRANCISCO DE GOYA, SATURN DEVOURING ONE OF HIS CHILDREN, 1819-
1823
• ANTOINE JEAN GROS, NAPOLEON IN THE PESTHOUSE OF JAFFA, 1804, OIL ON
CANVAS
• THEODORE GERICAULT, THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA, 1818-1819
• JEAN AUGUSTE INGRES, THE GRAND ODALISQUE, 1814, OIL ON CANVAS
• EUGENE DELACROIX, LIBERTY LEADING THE PEOPLE, 1830
• WILLIAM BLAKE, ANCIENT OF DAYS, 1794
• HENRY FUSELI, THE NIGHTMARE, 1790, OIL ON CANVAS,
• JOHN CONSTABLE, THE HAY WAIN, 1821, OIL ON CANVAS,
• JOSEPH M.W TURNER, THE FIGHTING TEMERAIRE, 1838
• THOMAS COLE, THE OXBOW, 1836, OIN ON CANVAS
• CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH, TWO MEN GAZING AT THE MOON, 1819,
SS
SCULPTURE
• Francouise Rude, Departure of the Volunteers of 1792, or La
Marseillaise, 1833-1836, Arc de Trimphe, Paris

• Antoine Louis Barye, Jaguar Devouring a Hare, 1850, bronze,

• DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY
• CAMERA OBSCURA . PHOTOGRAMS.
• LOIS DAGUERRE, ARTISTS STUDIO, 1837,
• NADAR, NADAR IN A BALLOON AND PORTRAIT OF THEOPHILE
GAUTIER, 1856

SS
ROMANTICISM
• Romanticism was a movement that began as a reaction to the
constraints of Neoclassicism. It swept across Europe and helped to
inspire many nationalist movement.
• The artwork of this movement is not linked by common artistic style
but rather by the following characteristics:
• A desire to express personal emotions
• A link to the ideas of Rousseau who rejected reason in favor of intuition
• A renewed link to the mysteries of religion and faith
• Inspiration taken from medieval art, literature and the beauty of nature, including:
• Heroes and miraculous events of the Middle ages, especially of the Gothic period.
• Natural phenomena such as raging rivers, storms and misty mountains
• Literary masters such as William Shakespeare and Dante.

SS
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN PAINTING
• Artists, were caught up in European and American revolutions. The
fight for Greek independence was particularly galvanizing for
European intellectuals. Political paintings became important,
expressing the artists solidarity with social movement or political
position. Gros, Delacroix and Goya are among many who create a
memorable political compositions.
• Even in landscape painting had a political agenda. No longer
content to paint scenes for their beauty or artistic engagement,
landscape painters needed to make a contemporary statement.

SS
 Mid 19th Century Art & Architecture:
Realism, Photography, and Iron

Iron Opens Doors…

Industrial Revolution - Economy
Time Frame of Realism: 1848-late 1860s
– beginning: conclusion of Napoleonic Wars
– trains – transport raw materials to factories
in city
– effect: class system
• capitalists --> gained centralized
economic control
• laboring class --> lack of education &
poor living
• middle class --> adopted “laissez-faire”
policy
Millet’s The Gleaners (c. 1857)
•Barbizon School of
French painting
•Poorest of the
poor, picking up
scraps of grain
•Figures become
part of landscape
•Haystacks and
wagon reflect
shapes of gleaners
•Seen as socialist
painting
 Rosa Bonheur’s Plowing on the Ninverais (c. 1850)

Influenced by Positivism.. Large canvas, virtues of simple country living in a

sweeping panorama… noted animal painter who fought for women’s rights
ART
NOUVEAU
OUTLINE
• Birth of Art Nouveau
• Introduction: Art Nouveau
-Time & Place
-Hallmarks of Art Nouveau Styles
-Other names for Art Nouveau
-Critical Nicknames
• Art Nouveau Architecture
-Features
-Pierre Francastel
-Stephan Tschudi Madsen
-Art Nouveau Architects and their Works
• Beginning of Art Deco
• References
BIRTH OF ART NOUVEAU

The last third of the 19th century saw the

development of a fundamentally
approach to architecture and interior
design. All over Europe there was a
need for liberating change of direction, a
desire to break away from set formulas
based on pastiche of historical styles and a
search for original ideas, all of which
resulted at the beginning of the 1890s in
the birth of Art Nouveau.
INTRODUCTION: ART NOUVEAU

Art Nouveau (French for "New

Style") was popularized by the
famous Maison de l'Art
Nouveau (House of New Art), a
Paris art gallery operated by
Siegfried Bing.
INTRODUCTION: ART NOUVEAU

Art Nouveau represents the beginning of

modernism in design (Modern Architecture).
It occurred at a time when mass-produced
consumer goods began to fill the
marketplace, and designers, architects, and
artists began to understand that the
handcrafted work of centuries past could be
lost. While reclaiming this craft tradition, art
nouveau designers simultaneously rejected
traditional styles in favor of new, organic forms
that emphasized humanity's connection
to nature.
INTRODUCTION: ART NOUVEAU

TIME & PLACE

Art Nouveau
art and
architecture
flourished in
major
European cities
between 1890
and 1914.
IMPRESSIONISM
AND POS -
IMPRESSIONISM

AP ART HISTORY
  THE IMPRESSIONISTS ORGANIZED THEIR
FIRST EXHIBIT IN 1874 IN PARIS, USING THE
NAME ANONYMOUS SOCIETY OF PAINTERS,
SCULPTORS, PRINTMAKERS. EACH MEMBER
HAD A UNIQUE STYLE

IMPRESSIONISM
OVERVIEW
Claude Monet
  Their depiction of modern life
 Their rejection of established European styles

 The embracing of new experimental ideas

known as avan gard ”

 The incorporation of new techniques such as

short, choppy brushstrokes, using pure bright

colors.
 New synthetic pigments and ready made paint

solid in tubes
 Interested in painting “plain air ”, landscaping

ARTISTS WERE UNITED

By: Neha Bakshi
&
Olivia Scalf
 Uses bright, wild, and
vividly intense colors to help
convey a mood.
 Lines are simplified as much as
possible as well as very unnatural
lines.
 Usually have no really basis in
reality, and often look very
childish.
 First Art Revolution of the 20th
century.
 Major Artists:
Paul Gauguin,
Maurice
Vlaminck, André
Derain, Henri
• Started in Europe
during the 20th century
in about 1905.
• Were first recognized
when they had their
first exhibition in Paris,
France.
• Officially began in 1898
in France.
 Enlightenment
(18th Century Pluralism)
and
Neoclassicism
18th Century
 18th Century
A philosophy of thinking freely unconnected to
religion and tradition.
 Participatory and knowledgeable citizenry
 American and French Revolutions
Promoted scientific questioning of previous
affirmations
 Embraced progress
 First encyclopedias appeared
 Industrial Revolution; England 1740s
 First Iron Bridge (Coalbrookdale, England,
1776)
 Ancient Roman studies required for an elite
education
 Increased travel by European and
Americans to Italy
Elements in Art:
Geometric harmony of classical art
and architecture
New innovative building materials
Portrait painting against
landscapes
Emphasis on Rationality
Moral and honorable deeds
Inspire virtue
Loyalty, courage,leadership
CUBIS
M
HOW DOES THE ART OF CUBISM REFLECT
THE SOCIETY AND OUTLOOK OF THE
ARTISTS OF THE TIME AROUND 1907?
 INFLUENCE OF SOCIETY
ARTISTS
ON
• There was a push towards being modern.
A time of great change as people
embraced new inventions and people’s
lifestyles were changing. e.g., transport,
electricity, communications, factories,
people moving away from farms to the
cities (industrialisation).

• Invention of photography took over

from the needs of traditional art forms
to reproduce realistic scenes.
 INFLUENCE OF SOCIETYON
ARTISTS
• New philosophies and rise of
psychology. Artists could now interpret
the world communicating their
emotions, thoughts and philosophies.

• Artists no longer wanted to depict a

single traditional view in their art but
wanted to interpret their world
showing movement, time and multiple
views as if you were moving through
space, thoughts and opinions, a more
 WHAT DID THE ARTISTS DO IN
THEIR PAINTINGS TO REFLECT
THESE IDEAS?
• These works stressed
the use of multiple
perspective (view points)
and complex planes
(flattened surfaces) for
expressive effect.
• The artists tried to
incorporate a sense
of time through
multiple perspectives,
giving symbolic
 WHAT DID THE ARTISTS DO IN
THEIR PAINTINGS TO REFLECT
THESE IDEAS?
The artists create space
and effects of multiple
viewpoints to convey a
physical and psychological
sense of the fluidity of
consciousness, blurring the
distinctions between past,
present and future.
 WHAT DID THE ARTISTS DO IN
THEIR PAINTINGS TO REFLECT
THESE IDEAS?
• The subject was no longer
considered from a specific
point of view at a moment in
time, but built following a
selection of successive
viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed
simultaneously from
numerous angles (and in
four-dimensions) with the
eye free to roam from one to
the other.
 WHAT DID THE ARTISTS DO IN
THEIR PAINTINGS TO REFLECT
THESE
IDEAS?
• Imagine walking through
the city, looking up at
buildings and down on the
foot path and behind you
at the cars.
• The artists tried to show all
of these viewpoints in one
image rather form one
viewing point.
• The best known Cubists
 ANALYTICAL CUBISM
The most famous Cubist
artist was Pablo
Picasso.
In the early years of
cubism, Picasso
constructed his images
using small facets, or
geometric planes, and
represented objects from
different viewpoints.
Seated Nude, Many critics of the period
Picasso 1909
believed the
represent artistinaimed
reality a new,to
ANALYTICAL CUBISM

However, as this
atmospheric painting shows,
Picasso could use this
technique for expressive
ends.
Here, the woman has been
all but stripped of her
humanity and appears
strangely mechanistic.
At the same time, Picasso
demonstrates his awareness
of tradition in her pose and
Surrealism
1924
Surrealism
1924

Originally a literary
movement, it explored
dreams, the unconscious,
the element of chance and
multiple levels of reality.

“more than real”

“better than real”
WHY Surrealism in 1924?

What was happening in the world

around this time?
WHY Surrealism in 1924?

What was happening in the world

around this time?
• World War I (1914-1918)
• Sigmund Freud
Physically and psychologically, WWI
destroyed Western civilization
Countries Involved:

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
France
Germany
Great Britain
Greece India
Iraq
Italy
Japan
Montenegro
New Zealand
Poland
Portugal
Rhodesia
Romania
Russia
Serbia
South Africa
Turkey United
States
“The logic, science and technology that
many thought would bring a better world
had gone horribly wrong.

Instead of a better world, the

advancements of the 19th century had
produced such high tech weapons as
machine guns, long- range artillery,
tanks, submarines, fighter planes and
mustard gas.”
(source: Janson)
Op
Art
Optical Art is a mathematically-theme form of Abstract art,
which uses repetition of simple shapes and colors to create
vibrating effects, foreground-background confusion, an
exaggerated sense of depth, and other visual effects.
In the 1960's, the term "Op Art" was coined to describe the
work of a growing group of abstract painters. This movement
was led by Victor Vasarely and Bridget Riley.

Blaze 1964
What
Pop Art is it ??!!!

Pop Art is a 20th century art movement that

utilized the imagery and techniques of
consumerism and popular culture.

It often includes images of mass media, advertising

Comics or consumer products.

L.Johnson www.artroomonline.com
Andy Warhol
(1928-1987)

"Everything is beautiful.
Pop is everything."

- Andy Warhol
"I was looking for
something that was the
essence of nothing, and
the soup can was it,"
-Andy Warhol

Campbell’s Tomato Soup, 1962, oil on canvas

minimalism “less is more”
-Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
 Minimalism
Minimalism
Systematic
painting
Literalism

Reductive art

ABC art

minimalism Naming
• To strip down extra and unwanted material.

• Focus :
– Form
– Light
– Space
– Details of material: Rediscovering the valuable qualities in
simple and common materials

• Conveying the message of simplicity:

– Basic geometric forms
– Elements without decoration
– Simple materials
– Repetitions of structures, representing a sense of order
and essential quality.

Architecture and space : Concept and

minimalism design management
• Buddhism.

• Freedom & essence of

living.

• Reveals the inner

qualities of materials
and objects, apart from
aesthetic value.

Sand Garden, Japan

minimalism Architecture : Zen influence

• American architect.

• Interior designer.

• Writer and educator.

• Designed more than 1,000
structures and completed 500
works.

Solomon R.Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1959

minimalism Frank Lloyd Wright

• Son of architect Yoshiro
Taniguchi.
• Studied architecture at
Harvard University's
Graduate School of
Design, graduated in
1964.
• Worked briefly for architect
Walter Gropius, who became
an important influence.
• In 1996 named as a
master of minimalism.
• One of the most important
architects at Tokyo
university.

Yoshio Taniguchi

minimalism Yoshio Taniguchi

Conceptual Art
“Taste is the great enemy of art”
"Ideas alone can be works of art; they are in a chain of
development that
may eventually find some form. All ideas need not be
made physical."
Why
‘conceptual’?

• A concept is an idea or
thought, so the term
conceptual art means
literally ‘idea art’ – or
art about ideas.
• Art is the which the
idea of the work is
more important than
the work itself

Mel
•Their chief claim -
that the articulation
of an artistic idea
suffices as a work of
art –
•So drastically simplified,
it might seem to many
people that what passes
for Conceptual art is not
in fact "art" at all
•The fact that the idea
behind the work of art is
more important, means
that the possibilities in the
world of art are limitless
Conceptualism
rejects
questioning
‘traditional’what
forms
art can
of art-
be!

•Conceptualism took
myriad forms, such as
performances, happenings,
and ephemera.
•From the mid-1960s
through the mid-1970s
Conceptual artists
produced works and
writings that completely
rejected standard ideas
of art.
•Ex: hierarchy of art
genres, subjects,
aesthetics, expression,
skill and marketability
were all irrelevant
 What does conceptual art
look like?

Conceptual art can be – and can look like – almost anything.

This is because, unlike a painter or sculptor who will think about how best
they can express their idea using paint or sculptural materials and
techniques, a conceptual artist uses whatever materials and whatever
form is most appropriate to putting their idea across – this could be
anything from a performance to a written description.
Although there is no one style or form used by conceptual artists, from
the late 1960s certain trends
emerged.
 When, why and
where did
conceptual art
The term conceptualhappen?
art usually refers to an art movement that emerged in the mid
1960s and continued until the mid 1970s.
It was an international art movement happening more or less simultaneously
across Europe, North America and South America.
Artists associated with the movement attempted to bypass the increasingly
commercialized art world by stressing
thought processes and methods of production as the value of the work.
The art forms they used were often intentionally those that do not produce a finished
object such as a sculpture or painting.
This meant that their work could not be easily bought and sold and did not
need to be viewed in a formal gallery situation.
It was not just the structures of the art world that many conceptual artists
questioned, there was often a strong socio-political dimension to much of the work
they produced, reflecting wider dissatisfaction with society and government
policies.
Origins and
influence
• Marcel Duchamp is often seen
as an
important forefather of
conceptual art, and
his readymade Fountain of 1917
cited as the first conceptual
artwork.
• Conceptual artists link their
work to a
tradition of Marcel Duchamp,
whose
Readymades had rattled the
very definition of the work of
art.
• Like Duchamp before them,
they
abandoned beauty, rarity, and Marcel Duchamp
skill as Fountain 1917,
measures of art. replica 1964