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Temperature
measurement
Made by:
~086120319035 Joshi Vipul
~086120319036 Kelawala Rinav
~086120319037 Khelani Divya
~086120319038 Kosmbiya Jignesh
~086120319039 Kothwala Abhishek

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J Temperature along with pressure is an important parameter that governs many physical
phenomena. Hence the measurement of temperature is a very important activity in the
laboratory as well as in industry.
J The lowest temperature that is encountered is very close to 0 K and the highest
temperature that may be measured is about 100000 K.
J This represents a very large range and cannot be covered by a single measuring
instrument.
J Hence temperature sensors are based on many different principles and the study of
these is the material of this sub module.
J We take recourse to thermodynamics to provide a definition for temperature of a
system.
J Thermodynamics is the studies of systems in equilibrium and temperature is an
important intensive property of such systems.
J Temperature is defined via the so called zero th law of thermodynamics. A system is
said to be in equilibrium if its properties remain invariant.
J Consider a certain volume of an ideal gas at a specified pressure. When the sate of
this volume of gas is disturbed it will eventually equilibrate in a new state that is
described by two new values of volume and pressure.
J Even though we may not be able to describe the system as it is undergoing a change
we may certainly describe the two end states as equilibrium states. Imagine two such
systems that may interact through a wall that allows changes to take place in each of
them.
J The change will manifest as changes in pressure and/or volume. If, however, there are
no observable changes in pressure and volume of each one of them when they are
allowed to interact as mentioned above, the two systems are said to be in equilibrium
with each other and are assigned the same temperature.
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arinciple of any thermometer may be explained

using the facts indicated in figure 1. Consider
a system whose state is fixed by two
properties ²coordinates ² X and Y.
It is observed that several pairs of values of
X, Y will be in equilibrium with a second
system of fixed temperature (or a fixed
state).
These multiplicity of sates must all be
characterized by the same temperature and
hence represent an isotherm.
Assume that one of the coordinates of the
system (Y) is fixed at a value equal to Y0.
Then there is only one sate that will
correspond to any given isotherm.
If the system is allowed to equilibrate with a
system characterized by different isotherms,
the property X will change as indicated by the
points of intersectionX1, X2 and so on.
These will then correspond to the respective
temperaturesT1, T2 and so on.
We refer to X as the thermometric property
and the system as a thermometer.
thermometer.

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aroperties that vary systematically with temperature may be used
as the basis of a thermometer.
Several are listed here.
Thermoelectric thermometer:-
Based on thermoelectricity - Thermocouple thermometers using two
wires of different materials
Electric resistance:-
Resistance thermometer using metallic materials like alatinum,
Copper, Nickel etc.
Thermistors consisting of semiconductor materials like Manganese-
Nickel-cobalt oxide mixed with proper binders
Thermal expansion:-
Bimetallic thermometers
Liquid in glass thermometer using mercury or other liquids
aressure thermometer
ayrometry and spectroscopic methods:-
Radiation thermometry using a pyrometer
Special methods like spectroscopic methods, laser based methods,
interferometry etc.
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J This type of thermometer consists of a bulb
filled with mercury attached to the glass
tube.
J The thermometers useally have a scale
engraved directly on the glass tube indicate
the temperature in Celsius.
J When the bulb is heated or brought in to
contact with the heated substance, the volume
of the mercury increases. Hence the mercury
rise up in the capillary tube.
J Since the area of the capillary is much less
than the area of the bulb ,relatively small
changes of the volume of the mercury will
result in significant rise in capillary.
J The free surface of the mercury in the tube
indicates the temperature of the bulb and
hence the temperature of heated substance.
J The range of the mercury thermometer is -39
degree Celsius to 340 degree Celsius.
J This kind of thermometer is used for
temperature measurement in an application like
open liquid tank, air-
air-ducts, steam lines,
cooking kettles, etc..
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J The volume of a liquid increases when heated.
This expansion is proportional to the
temperature.
J aressure spring thermometer consists of
mercury filled bulb, flexible capillary tube and
the bourdon tube.
J When the steel bulb is heated, the mercury
level in the bulb expands and hence the
pressure on the bourdon tube increases.
J Due to this the free end of the bourdon tube
moves on the calibrated scale and indicates
the temperature.
The advantage of the pressure spring
thermometer:
J Simple and inexpensive design.
J Remote indication up to 100 meter is possible.
J Fairly good response, accuracy ,and
sensitivity.
J Can be easily attached to pen recorder.

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Bimetallic strips consists of two pieces of
different metals welded together.
Each piece of metal strip is having a different
coefficient of expansion.
The strip bends with it is subjected to heat.
In industry the bimetallic strip is wound in the
helical form.
The bimetallic strip is made of brace and
invar metal.
Typical range of bimetallic thermometer is -
74 degree Celsius to 540 degree Celsius.
Uses of bimetallic thermometer:
For automatic control of home appliances,
For measurement of temperature of engines,
reaction chambers, furnaces, etc..
Advantages of bimetallic thermometer
are:
Simple and inexpensive design
Quite rugged construction, minimum possibility
of damage.

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It consists of a certain volume of a gas
contained in a rigid vessel. The vessel is
connected to a U tube manometer with a side
tube and height adjustable reservoir as shown.
The volume is kept constant by making the
meniscus in the left limb of the U tube always
stay at the mark mad3e on the left limb of
the U tube.
The right limb has a graduated scale attached
to it as shown.
The gas containing vessel is immersed in a
constant temperature environment.
The graduated scale helps in determining the
pressure of the confined gas in terms of the
manometer head. Choose the pressure of the
gas to have a definite value when the constant
temperature environment corresponds to
standard fixed state such as the triple point
of water.
Now move the thermometer into an
environment at the steam point (boiling point
of water at one atmosphere).
The pressure of the gas has to be adjusted to
a higher value than it was earlier by adjusting
the height of the reservoir suitably so as to
make the meniscus in the left limb of the U
tube stay at the mark.
The above experiment may be repeated by
taking less and less gas to start with by
making the pressure at the triple point of
water to have a smaller and smaller value (the
vessel volume is the same in all the cases). mñ
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Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, copper, iron and uranium.
This metallic oxides are milled, mixture in appropriate proportion,
are pressed in to the desired shape with appropriate binders and
finally sintered.
The electrical terminals are finally embedded before baking.
Thermistor may be shaped in the form of beads, disks, washers and
rods.
The thermistor are smaller in size because their resistivity is high
compared to the resistivity of the resistance wire.
Application of Thermistors:-
Temperature measurement control,
For temperature compensation,
As sensing elements in level switches,
As sensing elements in flow meters,
For gas analysis«

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 thermistor is an electrical resistor used to measure
temperature.
 thermistor designed such that its resistance varies with
temperature in a repeatable way.
 simple model for the relationship between
temperature and resistance is T = kR.  thermistor with k >
0 is said to have a positive temperature coecient (aTC).
 thermistor with k < 0 is said to have a negative
temperature coecient (NTC).
NTC thermistors are semiconductor materials with a well-
denned variation electrical resistance with temperature
Mass-produced thermistors are interchangeable: to within a
tolerance the thermistors obey the same T = F(R)
relationship.
Measure resistance, e.g., with a MultiMate Convert
resistance to temperature with calibration equation m×
 

  


Sensor output is directly related to absolute

temperature { no reference junction needed}.
Relatively easy to measure resistance
Sensors are interchangeable (0:5 C)
Smaller in size
Faster thermal response
High sensitivity
High accuracy and stability.

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aossible self-heating error:

† Each measurement applies current to resistor from
precision current source.
† Measure voltage drop, then compute resistance
from known current and measured voltage.
† Repeated measurements in rapid succession can
cause thermistor to heat up
More expensive than thermocouples: $20/each
versus $1/each per junction
More dicult to apply for rapid transients: slow
response and self-heating

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Resistance
thermometer:
~ Resistance wire is made
from metals like copper,
nickel and platinum.
~ Resistivity of the metal
wire is low.
~ Resistance change for each
degree temperature change
is small.
~ Resistance increases as the
temperature increases.
~ Can measure temperature
up to 600 degree Celsius.
~ High time stability.
Thermistors:
~ They are made up of
sintered mixture of
metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt,
iron, copper and uranium.
~ Resistivity of a thermistors
is high.
~ Resistance change for each
degree temperature change
is large.
~ Resistance decreases as the
temperature increases.
~ Can measure temperature
up to 300 degree Celsius.
~ Low time stability.
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When two dissimilar metals
are joined together to form
a closed loop circuit, two
junction are formed.
When one of the junction is
heated the current flows in
the circuit, which can be
measured with
galvanometer.
The polarity and the
magnitude of the current
depends on the properties
of the metals and junction
temperature difference

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The measuring junction of the thermocouple is kept in a
protective metal sheath and heat assembly.
The measuring junction is connected with voltmeter and
reference junction with the help of extension wire.
The extension wire is also known as compensating lead.
The properties of compensating leads must be same as that
of the thermocouple but should have low resistance and must
be cheaper.
When the thermocouple is heated, emf is produced which is
measured by the voltmeter connected to it.
s the voltmeter is calibrated for temperature.
It shows the temperature of the measuring junction.

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The emf is produced by the thermocouple is proportional to
the temperature differences between the cold and hot
junctions.
s the ambient temperature changes, the temperature of
the cold junction also varies and it results in the variations in
the emf produced by the thermocouple and results in the
measurement error.
This error can be reduced or eliminated by using the
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
This arrangement is called as cold junction compensation.

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Rugged construction
Faster measurement
Easy in operation
High accuracy
Remote indication is possible

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Span of the measurement is only 33% of maximum
temperature to be measured.
Temperature of the reference junction must be
constant throughout the measurement or the
temperature compensating devices should be used.
mplifiers are required in some application.
Expensive accessories are required for the control
applications

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To measure the temperature of furnace in
industry.
To measure temperature below 0 degree Celsius.
verage temperature of the different points can
be measured by using more than one thermocouple
parallel.
For differential temperature measurement.
One thermocouple can be connected with two
reading instruments.

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ll bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate the heat.
The amount of energy radiated by the body depends on the
temperature of the body.
This is called Stefan-
Stefan-Boltzman·s law.
This law can be used to measure the temperature of the
body.

Stefan-
Stefan âThe amount of
-Boltzman·s law states that
radiant energy by the body is proportional
to the forth power of the absolute
temperature.µ

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The radiation pyrometer is designed to collect the
radiation from the radiating object and focus it by
means of mirrors os lens on to a detector.
The detector usually a thermocouple or a
thermopile produces emf proportional to a
temperature and it is given to a suitable
millivoltmeter.
s the millivoltmeter is calibrated for temperature
it shows the temperature of the body.
The recorder attached with the thermopile also
provides the graph of the temperature variations.
Thermopile and the lens are fitted in the
blackened tube.

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dvantages:-
dvantages:
Can measure very high temperature.
No direct contact with the object required.
High speed of response.
Reasonable price.
Disadvantages:-
Disadvantages:-
The scale is highly non linier.
aresence of smoke and dust particles in the vicinity may
results in measurement error.
Cooling is required to protect the instruments where the
operating condition are very hot.
The calibration depends on the emissivity of the target
material.

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The optical pyrometer consists of a filament lamp.
The radiation from the target surface is focused by an
objective lens upon the plane filament of an electric bulb.
 red filter is placed between the eyepiece and the filament
allows only the narrow band of wave length to pass through
it.
The eye piece is adjusted until the filament is in sharp
focus.
Filament is heated on passing current through it by changing
the value of the reahostat.
s the current increases the temperature and the resistance
of the filament increases.
When the intensity of the radiation from lamp is same as the
intensity of the target, the filament is indistinguishable.
n ammeter connected in series with the filament measure
the current passing through it may be calibrated to the read
the temperature of the filament and hence the temperature
of the target.
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Can measure very high temperature.

To check and calibrate the radiation pyrometer.
To measure the temperature of the moving or
stationary objects in steel and metal industries.
For measurement of temperature where direct
contact of the sensor is not possible.
In steel and metal industries for measurement of
high temperature in refining and alloying process.

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