Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer

Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer
Department of Chemical Engineering

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
Outlines
4.1 　 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

4.2 　 Conduction Heat Transfer
4.3 　 Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere
4.4 　 Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors
4.5 　 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes
4.6 　 Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection
4.7 　 Natural Convection Heat Transfer
4.8 Boiling and Condensation
4.9 Heat Exchangers
4.10 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer
4.11 Advanced Radiation Heat-Transfer Principles
4.12 Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids
4.13 Special Heat-Transfer Coefficients
4.14 Dimensional Analysis in Heat Transfer
2
p.235
4.1A Steady-State Heat Transfer
Alcohol distillation Drying of lumber Burning of fuel Evaporation
• Heat transfer occurs because of a temperature-difference driving force and

heat flows from the high-to the low-temperature region.
Heat Balance:
Heat transport and Fourier’s law
3
p.235-236
Heat transport and Fourier’s law
Assuming the rate of transfer of heat occurs only conduction:
Unsteady-state balance for heat transfer in control volume
4
p.236
Unsteady-state balance for heat transfer in control volume
(rate of accumulation of heat) = (rate of heat in) – (rate of heat out) + (rate of
generation of heat)
rate of heat generated
per unit volume
Assuming:
no heat generation
Steady-state (no accumulation)
5
p.236-237
4.1B Basic Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
 Conduction : the transfer of heat can be conducted through solids,

liquids, and gases.
 Convection : the transfer of heat by bulk transport and mixing of
macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler portions of a gas
or liquid.
6
 Radiation : the transfer of heat through space by electromagnetic waves.
p.237
4.1C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
transfer process
Momentum transfer
Heat transfer
Mass transfer
Fourier’s law:
Heat flux (W/m2) Temperature gradient in the x-dir
7
p.238
Conversion factor of k :
1 btu/h. ft. oF = 4.1365 x 10-3 cal/s. cm. oC.
1 btu/h. ft. oF = 1.73073 W/m. K
Conversion factor of heat flux and power :
1 btu/h. ft2 = 3.1546 W/m2

1 btu/h = 0.29307 W
Steady-state heat transfer through a flat wall of cross-sectional area, A, constant
8
p.238
Ex. 4.1.-1
Calculate the heat loss per m2 of surface area for an insulating wall composed of
25.4 mm-thick fiber insulating board, where the inside temperature is 352.7 K
and the outside temperature is 297.1 K.
Solution
From App. A.3-15 p.986
k is 0.048 W/m. K
9
4.1D Thermal Conductivity p.238-239
The thermal conductivity of different materials have been

determined by experimental measurements.
For liquid, the k varies moderately

with temperature can be
expressed as a linear eq.:
a and b are empirical constants
App A.3 thermal conductivities for inorganic and organic materials

App A.4 thermal conductivities for food and biological materials 10
p.240
4.1E Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient
Flowing fluid at Tf Heated surface at Tw
Convection : Newton’s Law Cooling
Tf= Tb (bulk of temperature)

f(system geometry, fluid properties,
flow velocity, different temperature)
11
p.240-241
4.1E Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient
In many cases, h is often called a film coefficient when the fluid flows past a
surface, the thin layer or film of fluid appears in the wall.
1 btu/h. ft2. oF = 5.6783 W/m2. K
12
p. 241
4.2A Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall
x1 x2
For the k and A are constant:
For the k is not constant:
13
p. 242
4.2A Conduction Heat Transfer
driving force
Resistance (K/W, h. oF/btu)
14
p. 242
4.2B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder
1-D (Radial) Steady-State Heat Conduction Through Hollow Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer r2 of length L of a material having
constant conductivity (k).
Inner surface of cylinder is at T1 and outer at T2.
Conduction equation for 1-D (radial) heat flow (without gen) will be:
Integrating Eq.
15
p. 242
or
Integrating Eq.
Substituting Eq.
16
p. 242-243
or
Heat Flow Rate:
17
p. 243
Ex. 4.2.-1
A thicked-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber having an inside radius
of 5 mm and an outside radius of 20 mm is being used as a temporary
cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall
temperature is 274.9 K. The outside surface temperature is 297.1 K. A total
of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the cooling coil. How many
m of tubing are needed?
Solution
From App A.3-15 p.986
assume the k value is applicable at temperature
ranges from 274.9 K to 297.1 K.
assume length of tubing is 1 m
18
p. 244
Since 15.2 W is removed for 1 m of length of tube, the length needed is
Note: the thermal conductivity of rubber is quite small, the liquid film resistances in this
case are neglected.
19
p. 244
4.2C Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere
Fourier's Law in radial coordinates
r2
(1)
r1
The cross-sectional area to the heat flow is

(2)
Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and integrating:
20
p. 244-245
4.3A Conduction Through Solids in Series
The temperature profiles in materials A, B, and C are shown as follows, the heat flow (q)
must be the same in each layer.
Rearrange the Eq.
Total resistance
21
p. 245
Ex. 4.3.-1
A cold-storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a middle layer
of 101.6 mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2 mm of concrete. The wall surface
temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room and 297.1 K at the outside surface of
concrete. Use conductivities from App. A.3 for pine, 0.151; for cork board 0.0433; and
for concrete 0.762 W/m. K. Calculate the heat loss in W for 1 m2 and the temperature
at the interface between the wood and cork board.
Solution
A = Pine
B = Cork board
C = Concrete
A B C
22
p. 246
negative sign indicate that the heat flows from outside into in
The interface temperature, T2 between pine wood and cork board,
or
23
p. 246
4.3B Multilayer Cylinders
Heat transfer occurs through multilayers of

cylinders
24
p. 247
Ex. 4.3.-2
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel (A) having a k=21.63 W/m. K with dimensions of
0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 m OD is covered with a 0.0254 m thick layer of an insulation (B) ,
k= 0.2423 W/m K. The inside-wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the outside
surface of the insulation is at 310.8 K. For a 0.305 m length of pipe, calculate the heat
loss and also the temperature at the interface between the metal and the insulation.
Solution
r1
T1 r2
T2
T3 r3
25
p. 248
26
p. 248
4.3C Conduction Through Materials in Parallel
27
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall p. 249
Coefficients
In practical situations, the surface temperatures (Tw) are difficult to predict. Consider the
plane wall:
28
Coefficients
The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and convection is expressed
where:
29
p. 249-250
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall
Coefficients
where:
the inside area of the metal tube
the log mean area of the metal tube
the outside area of the metal tube

30
Coefficients
The overall heat-transfer coefficient, U, for the cylinder may be based on the inside Ai
area or outside Ao are
31
p. 250
Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Coefficients
Ex. 4.3.-3
Saturated steam at 267 oF is flowing inside a ¾ in. steel pipe having an ID of 0.824 in. and
an OD of 1.050 in. The pipe is insulated with 1.5 in. of insulation on the outside. The
convective coefficient for the inside steal surface of the pipe is estimated as h i=1000
btu/h.ft2. oF, and the convective coefficient on the outside of the lagging is estimated as
ho= 2 but/h.ft2 oF. The mean thermal conductivity of the metal is 45 W/m.K or 26 btu/h.
ft. oF and 0.064 W/m. K or 0.037 btu/hft. oF for the insulation.
(a)Calcultae the heat loss for 1 ft of pipe using resistances if the surrounding air is at 80
o
F.
(b) Repeat, using the overall Ui based on the inside area Ai.
Solution
32
p. 250-251
4.3D Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall
Coefficients
inside convection
outside convection
33
Coefficients
(a)
(b)
34
p. 251-252
4.3E Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
Heat is generated inside the conducting medium, chemical reaction, biological

activity, etc. The heats of generation can be as high as 0.3 to 0.6 W/kg.
Heat Generation in plane wall
q q
To
Tw Tw
L L
0
35
p. 252
In + Generation = Out + Accumulation
By Fourier’s law:
36
p. 252
37
p. 252
Integrating the Eq.
Integrating again the Eq.
38
p. 253
Heat Generation in Cylinder

Assume:
•Heat flows only radially
•The ends are neglected or insulated
•Constant thermal conductivity
•Steady state
In + Generation = Out + Accumulation To

Tw Tw
q q
R R
39
p. 253
By Fourier’s law:
40
p. 253
Integrating the Eq.
Integrating again the Eq.
41
p. 253
Ex. 4.3.-4
Solution
I 2 R  watts  q R 2 L
(200) 2 (0.126)  q  (0.001268) 2 (0.91)
q  1.096  10 9 W/m 3
q R 2
To    Tw
4k
 To  441.7 K
42
p. 254
4.3F Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder
q
T1  T2 T2  To T T
q   1 o
Rins Ro Rins  Ro
insulation where ln(r2 / r1 )

Rins 
pipe
2 kL
T1 T2 To
1 1
r2 ho Ro  
r1
 2 r2 L  ho Ao
43
p. 254
Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder
q qmax
circular pipe:-
k
rcr 
ho
sphere:-
2k
rcr 
rcr r ho
r2 rcr 
insulation
 q  eg. large pipes
r2 rcr 
insulation
 q  eg. small electrical wire
44
p. 254
Ex. 4.3.-5
An electric wire having a diameter of 1.5mm and covered with a plastic insulation
(thickness = 2.5mm) is exposed to air at 300K and ho = 20 W/m2.K. The insulation has a k of
0.4 W/m.K. It is assumed that the wire surface temperature is constant at 400 K and is not
affected by the covering.
(a)Calculate the value of the critical radius
(b)Calculate the heat loss per m of wire length with no insulation
(c)Repeat (b) for the insulation present.
Solution
air at T2
k  0.4 W/m.K
T2 electric wire plastic T2  400 K

1.5 mm
cover To  300 K
2.5 mm
To
45
p. 255
k 0.4
(a)  r2  cr    0.020 m  20 mm
ho 20
(b) r1  1.5 / 2 10 3  0.75  10 3 m, A  2r2 L
q  ho A(T2  To )
 20(  0.75 103  1)(400  300)
 9.42 W
(c) with insulation, r2  (2.5  1.5 / 2) 10 3  3.25 10 3 m
T2t 2  To
q
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1

2 kL ho Ao adding insulation greatly
400  300 increases the heat loss

ln(3.25 10 3 / 0.75 103 ) 1

2 (0.4)(1) 20(2  3.25 10 3 1)
 32.98 W
46
Homework
CJG means Geankoplis text
CJG 4.1-2, 4.2-2, 4.2-4, 4.2-5, 4.3-1, 4.3-3,4.3-7
47
p. 256
4.4A Steady-State Conduction and Shape Factors
2-D Steady state conduction
• The 2-D conduction is occurring in most cases. Analytical

solutions are not available only numerical method is applicable
to solve such problems.
• Another approximate method is the graphical method for
heat-transfer rate at isothermal boundaries.
• The 2-D graphical method is based on the heat-flux lines and
isotherm lines of curvilinear squares.
48
p. 256
General steps to use the graphical method:

1.Draw a model to scale of the 2-D solid. Give the label.
2.Select a number of equal temperature subdivisions between the isothermal
boundaries.
N=4
1
2 N=4
3
4
49
p. 257
50
p. 257
Ex. 4.4.-1
Solution
51
p. 257
4.4B Shape Factors in Conduction
S is conduction shape factor
52
p. 258
4.4B Shape Factors in Conduction
53
p. 259
4.5A Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes
q is the heat-transfer rate (W)

h is the convective coefficient (W/m2. K)
A is the area (m2)
T is the bulk or average temperature (K)
Tw is the temperature of the wall in contact with the fluid (K) 54
p. 260
h (convective coefficient or film coefficient)
Laminar flow lower heat-transfer coefficient
Turbulent flow greater heat-transfer coefficient
Classification of convective heat transfer:
•Free or natural convection (fluid moved by temperature difference/density

difference)
•Forced convection (fluid moved by mechanicals such as fan, propeller or

pump)
55
p. 260
h (film coefficient) are affected:

•Physical properties of the fluid
•The type and velocity of flow
•Temperature difference
•The geometry of the specific system
Parameters in convective heat transfer:

1. Momentum diffusivity
2. Thermal diffusivity
56
p. 260
3. Prandtl number
4. Nusselt number
where:
h : heat transfer coefficient

D : pipe diameter
k : thermal conductivity
57
p. 260
solid Heat transfer by convection
Heat transfer by conduction
conduction
convection
58
p. 260
4.5B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Inside a Pipe
59
p. 260-261
For laminar flow
where:
60
p. 261
where:
61
p. 261-262
4.5C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Inside a Pipe
For turbulent flow
where:
For air at 1 atm SI
English
where:
hL (W/ m2. K)
62
p. 262
For water at T = 4 - 105 oC
SI
English
For organic liquids
SI
English
63
p. 262
Ex. 4.5.-1
Solution
ho  hsteam
Tave  477.6 K
air
25.4 mm v  7.62 m/s
Tbi P  206.8 kPa
Tbo
Steam, Tw  488.7 K
64
p. 262
Ex. 4.5.-1
Solution
From App. A3 physical properties of air at 477.6 K:
From App. A3 physical properties of air at 488.7 K:
65
p. 263
Turbulent flow
For turbulent flow
66
p. 263
67
p. 263
4.5D Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow Inside a Pipe
G = mass velocity of fluid (kg/s.m2) = 

68
p. 264
4.5E Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Noncircular Conduits
For an annular space,
For other geometries, an equivalent diameter can also be used.
69
p. 264
Heat-Transfer Coefficient
Ex. 4.5.-2
Solution
70
p. 264
71
p. 264
For turbulent flow
(a)
72
p. 264-265
(b) For 0.305 m pipe:
The resistances are:
73
p. 265
Close enough
74
p. 265
(c)
75
p. 265
4.5F Entrance-Region Effect on Heat-Transfer Coefficient
• Near the entrance of a pipe where the fluid is being heated

• The temperature profile is not fully developed
• h is greater than the fully-developed h L for turbulent flow
76
p. 266
Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient
• Liquid metals are used as heat-transfer fluid over a wide temperature

range at relatively low pressures.
• Used in nuclear reactors
• The high heat-transfer coefficients are due to the very high thermal
conductivities, low Prandtl numbers.
• High thermal conductivity is more important than the convection effects.
Turbulent flow with uniform heat flux
77
p. 266
4.5G Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient
Ex. 4.5.-3
Solution
L?
Tbi  500 K liquid metal

Tbo  505 K Di  0.05 m
m  4 kg/s
Tw  Tbm  30 K
78
p. 266
Ex. 4.5.-3
Solution
Ai  Di L
Tbm
Tw  Tbm  30 K
q
Tw

q  hA Tw  Tbmean   m c p  Tbo  Tbi   h or c
79
p. 266
80
p. 267
4.5H Log Mean Temperature Difference
Thi
Tho
Thi Tho T1
Tco Tci Tco T2
Tci
countercurrent flow
Thi
Thi Tho Tho
T1
Tci Tco T2
Tco
Tci
cocurrent parallel flow
81
p. 268
For countercurrent flow
where
82
p. 268-269
Ex. 4.5.-4
Solution
(a) countercurrent flow
371.9 K  Thi
oil, m  3630 kg/h c 
p oil  2.3 kJ/kg.K
T1 Tho  349.7 K c 
p water  4.187 kJ/kg.K
Tco
U i  340 W/m 2 .K
T2
Ai  ?
Tci  288.6 K
water, m  1450 kg/h

83
p. 269
q   m c p  h  Tho  Thi  q   m c p  c  Tco  Tci 

  3630(2.3)(371.9  349.7) / 3600 51490  1450(4.187)(Tco  288.6)
 51490 W Tco  319.1 K
T1  371.9  319.1  52.8 K

T2  349.7  288.6  61.1 K
T1  T2 61.1  52.8

Tlm    56.9 K
 T   61.1 
ln 1  ln 
 T2   52.8 
q  U i Ai Tlm
51490  340 Ai (56.9)
Ai  2.66 m 2
84
p. 269
(b) parallel flow
371.9 K Thi
Tho 349.7K
T1
T2
Tco 319.1K
288.6 K Tci
T1  T2 83.3  30.6

T1  349.7  319.1  30.6 K Tlm    52.7 K
 T1   83.3 
T2  371.9  288.6  83.3 K 
ln 

ln  
 T2   30.6 
q  U i Ai Tlm
51490  340 Ai (52.7)
Ai  2.87 m 2
This is a larger area than for counterflow. This occurs because counterflows gives
larger temperature driving forces.
85
p. 269
Ex. 4.5.-5
A hydrocarbon oil at 150oF enters inside a pipe with an inside diameter of
0.0303 ft and a length of 15 ft with a flow rate of 80 Ibm/h. The inside pipe
surface is assumed constant at 350oF since steam is condensing outside the
pipe wall and has a very large heat-transfer coefficient. The properties of the
oil are cpm= 0.5 btu/Ibm.oF and km = 0.083 btu/h.ft.oF. The viscosity of the oil
varies with temperature as follows: 150oF, 6.50 cp; 200oF, 5.05 cp; 250oF, 3.80
cp; 300oF, 2.82 cp; 350oF, 1.95cp. Predict the heat-transfer coefficient and the
oil outlet temperature, Tbo
Solution
15 ft
Tbi  150 o F
Tbo  ? 0.0303 ft
c 
p oil  0.5 btu/Ibm.o F
oil m  80 Ibm/h k m  0.083 btu/h.ft.o F
D 2 Tw  350 o F
Ax 
4
86
p. 270
Assume value if Tbo  250 o F
250  150
Tbmean   200 o F
2
 2.4191 Ib/ft.h 
  5.05cp    12.23 Ib/ft.h
 1cp 
Dm cp
N Re  N Pr 
Ax k
0.0303(80) 0.5(12.23)
 
  0.083
12.23  0.03032 
4   73.7
 275.5( 2100)
D  0.0303 
N Re N Pr  275.5(73.7)   41
L  15 
87
p. 270
1 0.14
hD  D    3
N Nu   1.86 N Re N Pr   b 
k  L   w 
0.14
h(0.0303) 1
 12.23 
 1.86 41 3  
0.083  1 .95  2 .4191 
h  20.1 btu/h.ft 2 .o F
 We have to check the assumption we make for the temperature again.
q  m c pm  Tbo  Tbi   80.0(0.5) Tbo  150
q  ha ATa
Tbi  Tbo  150  Tbo 
Ta  Tw    350    275  0.5Tbo
2  2 
88
p. 270
q  m c pm  Tbo  Tbi   ha ATa

80.0(0.5) Tbo  150  275  0.5Tbo
Tbo  255 o F
This is higher than the assumed value of 250 o F. For the second trial, the mean bulk temperature
of the boil would be (150  255)/2 or 202.5 o F. The new viscosity is 5.0 cp compared with 5.05 for
first trial. Hence, the outlet temperature of T1  255 o F is correct.
89
Homework
CJG means Geankoplis text
CJG 4.3-10, 4.3-14, 4.5-3, 4.5-4, 4.5-6, 4.5-8
90
4.6A Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in p. 271
Forced Convection
• Generally, heat transfer is occurring between the fluid and the immersed
bodies of solid (spheres, tubes, plates) only.
• The heat flux is dependent on the geometry of the body, the position on
the body (front, side, back, etc), the flow rate, and the fluid properties.
The average heat-transfer coefficient on the immersed bodies
C and m are constants depend on the various configurations
The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature
91
p. 271
4.6B Flow Parallel to Flat Plate
0 L
0.5
1 N Re  3  10 5
N Nu  0.664 N Re N Pr 3
N Pr  0.7
Laminar flow
1 N Re  3  10 5
0.8 Turbulent flow
N Nu  0.0366 N Re N Pr 3 N Pr  0.7
92
p. 272
Ex. 4.6.-1
A smooth, flat, thin fin of copper extending out from a tube is 51 mm by 51 mm square. Its
temperature is approximately uniform at 82.2 oC. Cooling air at 15.6oC and 1 atm abs flows
parallel to the fin at a velocity of 12.2 m/s.
a) For laminar flow, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, h
b) If the leading edge of the fin is rough so that all of the boundary layer o film next to the
fin is rough so that alls o the boundary layer or film next to the fin is completely turbulent,
calculate h
Solution
q Tw  82.2 o C
air, v  12.2 m/s

Tbi  15.6 o C
P  1 atm 51 mm
51 mm
93
p. 272
The fluid properties will be evaluated at the film temperature:

(a) Tw  Tb 82.2  15.6
Tf    48.9 o C  49 o C
2 2
From Appendix A.3, at T f  49 o C, L
N Re 
  1.95 10 5 Pa.s 
b
N Pr  0.704 51 10 3 (12.2)(1.097)


k  0.028 W/m.K 1.95 10 5
  1.097 kg/m 3  3.49  10 4 ( 3  105 )
N Nu 
hL 0.5
1
 0.664 N Re N Pr 3 q  hA Tw  Tbm 
k  60.7(5110 6 ) 82.2  15.6
h(51 10 3 )
1
 0.664(3.49  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.704) 3  10.51 W
0.028
h  60.7 W/m 2 .K
94
p. 272
(b)
95
p. 272
4.6C Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow
Velocity is the undisturbed free stream velocity approaching the cylinder
96
p. 273
4.6D Flow Past Single Sphere
1
Limitations
0.5
N Nu  2  0.60 N Re N Pr 3
N Re  1 to 70000
N Pr  0.6 to 400
97
p. 273
Ex. 4.6.-2
Using same condition as Example 4.6-1, where air at 1 atm abs pressure and
15.6oC is flowing at velocity of 12.2 m/s, predict the average heat-transfer
coefficient for air flowing by a sphere having a diameter of 51mm and an
average surface temperature of 82.2oC. Compare this with the value of h =
77.2 W/m2.K for the flat plate in turbulent flow.
Solution
Tw  Tb 82.2  15.6
Tf    48.9 o C  49 o C
Tw  82.2 o C 2 2
From Appendix A.3, at T f  49 o C,
51 mm b  1.95 10 5 Pa.s

N Pr  0.704
k  0.028 W/m.K
  1.097 kg/m 3
98
p. 273
L
N Re 

51 10 3 (12.2)(1.097)

1.95  10 5
 3.49  10 4 ( 3  105 )
hD 0.5
1
N Nu   2  0.60 N Re N Pr 3
k
1
h(51  10 3 )
 2  0.60(3.49  10 4 ) 0.5 (0.704) 3
0.028
h  56.1 W/m 2 .K
99
p. 273
4.6E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders
• Many types of commercial heat exchangers are constructed with multiple

rows of tubes
• An example is gas heater in which a hot fluid inside the tubes heats a gas
passing over the outside of the tubes.
100
p. 273
N=3
101
p. 274
102
p. 274
103
p. 275
Ex. 4.6.-3
Air at 15.6oC and 1 atm abs flows across a bank of tubes containing four
transverse rows in the direction of flow and 10 rows normal to the flow at a
velocity of 7.62 m/s as the air approaches the bank of tubes. The tube surfaces
are maintained at 57.2oC. The outside diameter of the tubes is 25.4 mm and the
tubes are in-line to the flow. The spacing Sn of the tubes normal to the flow is
38.1mm and also Sp is 38.1mm parallel to the flow. For a 0.305m length of the
tube bank, calculate the heat-transfer rate
Solution
104
p. 275
1 2 3 4 D  25.4 mm
air, v  7.6 m/s
Tbi  15.6 o C 2
S n  38.1 mm
P  1 atm 3
10
From Appendix A.3, at T f  37.7 o C,
S p  38.1 mm  b  1.904  10 5 Pa.s
Tw  57.2 o C N Pr  0.705
Tw  Tb 57.2  18.3 k  0.027 W/m.K
Tf    37.7 o C
2 2   1.137 kg/m 3
105
p. 275
vS n  38.1 
v max   7.6   22.86 m/s
Sn  D  38.1  25.47 
L max 
N Re 

0.02547(22.86)(1.137)

1.90  10 5
 3.47  10 4 ( 3  10 5 )
From Table 4.6 - 2 (pg 251)

Sn Sp
In line,   1.5  c  0.278, m  0.620
D D
106
p. 275-276
hD m
1
N Nu   cN Re N Pr 3
k
1
h(0.0254)
 0.278(3.47  10 4 ) 0.620 (0.705) 3
0.027
h  171.8 W/m 2 .K
This h is for 10 rows. For only 4 rows in the transverse direction, the h must be multiplied by 0.9,
as given in Table 4.6 - 3
 h  0.9(171.8)  154.62 W/m 2 .K

A  40DL  40 (0.0254)(0.305)  0.973 m 2
At  10S n L  10(0.0381)(0.305)  0.1162 m 2
m  vAt (3600)  7.6(1.224)(0.1162)  1.084 kg/s
107
p. 276
 T  Tbi 
q  hA Tw  bo   m c p  Tbo  Tbi 
 2 
 T  15.6 
154.62(0.973) 57.2  bo   1.084(1.0048  103 )(Tbo  15.6)
 2 
Tbo  20 o C
If second trial ware to be made, the new average Tb to be use would be (15.6  20)/2 or 17.8 o C
108
p. 276
4.6F Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds
2 Limitations
 h  cp  3 2.876 0.3023 Gases
   
c p '   k  f N Re N Re
0.35
N Re  10 to 10000
Note : All properties are at Tbmean, except for those with

subscript f
109
p. 277
4.7A Natural Convection Heat Transfer
• Natural Convection heat transfer occurs when a solid surface is in contact

with a gas or liquid which is at a different temperature from the surface.
• Density differences in the fluid arising the buoyancy force to move the fluid.
• Free or natural convection as a result of the motion of the fluid.
110
p. 277
The momentum balance equation is:
driving force
111
p. 277
For gases,
The energy-balance can be expressed as follows
112
p. 278
4.7B Natural Convection from Various Geometries
Natural Convection from Vertical Planes and Cylinders

The average natural convection heat-transfer coefficient:
a and m are constants
113
p. 279
Ex. 4.7.-1
A heated vertical wall 1.0 ft (0.305 m) high of an oven for baking food with the surface
at 450 oF (505.4 K) is in contact with air at 100 oF (311 K). Calculate the heat-transfer
coefficient and the heat transfer/ft (0.305 m) width of wall. Note that heat-transfer for
radiation will not be considered. Use English and SI units.
Solution
Tw  505.4 K Tw  Tb
Tf   408.2 K
2
L  0.305 m From Appendix A.3, at T f  408.2 K,
air q
 b  2.32  10 5 Pa.s
Tb  311 K N Pr  0.690
k  0.0343 W/m.K
T  505.4  311  194.4 K   0.867 kg/m 3
1 1
   2.45  10 5
Tf 408.2
114
p. 279
L3  2 g T c p 
N Gr N Pr  
2 k
 (0.305) 3 (0.867) 9.80655 (2.45  10 3 )(194.4) 
  3 2
(0.690)
 ( 2 .32  10 ) 
 1.270  108  (10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9 )
1
From Table 4.7 - 1, when 10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9 a  0.59, m 
4
hL q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 a  N Gr N Pr 
m
N Nu 
k  7.03(0.305) 2  505.4  311
 
1
h(0.305)  127.1 W
 0.59 1.27  10 8 4
0.0343
h  7.03 W/m 2 .K
115
p. 280
Simplified equations for the natural convection heat transfer from air to vertical
planes and cylinders at 1 atm abs pressure
116
p. 280
Factor corrections
Air (1 atm) Table 4.7-2
1
 P  2 Limitations
Air (≠1 atm) h  htable 4.7  2   N Gr N Pr : 10 4  10 9
 101.32 
2
Limitations
 P  3
h  htable 4.7  2   N Gr N Pr  10 9
 101.32 
Note : All P in kN / m 2
117
p. 280-281
Ex. 4.7.-2
Repeat Example 4.7-1 but use the simplified equation

Solution
Use simplified equation from Table 4.7 - 2  10 4  N Gr N Pr  10 9
1
 T  4
h  1.37 
 L 
1
 194.4  4
 1.37 
 0.305 
 6.88 W/m 2 .K
q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 6.88(0.305) 2  505.4  311
 124.4 W 118
p. 282
Natural convection in enclosed spaces
Vertical plates
h Limitations
Gases: N Nu  1
k N Gr N Pr  2  10 3
 N Gr N Pr  1 / 4
N Nu  0.2 1/ 9 Limitations
L
  6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5
 
 N Gr N Pr  1 / 3
N Nu  0.073 1/ 9
Limitations
 L 2  10 5  N Gr N Pr  2  10 7
 
  119
p. 282
Limitations
Liquid: N Nu  1
N Gr N Pr  1 10 3
 N Gr N Pr  1 / 4 Limitations
N Nu  0.28 1/ 4
L 1  10 3  N Gr N Pr  1  10 7
 
 
120
p. 282
Vertical annulus
Gases 
 same as vertical plates
Liquid
 D1 
D2  D1

2
D2
 3  2 g  T1  T2  q
  T1  T2 
N Gr  Ain
2
121
p. 282
Horizontal plates
Limitations
N Nu  0.21 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 4
Gases: 6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5
N Nu  0.061 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 3 Limitations
N Gr N Pr  3 10 5
N Nu  0.069 N Gr N Pr 
1/ 3 0.074
Liquid: N Pr Limitations
1.5  10 5  N Gr N Pr  1  10 9
122
p. 282
Ex. 4.7.-3
Air at 1 atm abs pressure is enclosed between two vertical plates where L = 0.6m
and δ = 30 mm. The plates are 0.4m wide. The plate temperature are T1 = 394.3 K
and T2 = 366.5 K. Calculate the heat-transfer rate across the air gap.
Solution
T1  T2 394.3  366.5
Tf    380.4 K
2 2
T1  394.3 K 0 .4 m
From Appendix A.3, at T f  380.4 K,
0.6 m
 b  2.21  10 5 Pa.s
air N Pr  0.693
1 atm
k  0.03219 W/m.K
q
  0.9295 kg/m 3
1 1
  30 mm T2  366.5 K    2.629  10 5
T f 380.4
123
p. 283
 3  2 g  T1  T2 
N Gr 
2

 0.030 (0.9295) 2 (9.806)(2.629  10 5 )(394.3  366.5)
3
(2.21  10 5 ) 2
 3.423  10 4
N Gr N Pr  3.423  10 4 (0.693)
 2.372  10 4  6  10 3  N Gr N Pr  2  10 5
124
p. 283
h N N  1/ 4
N Nu   0.2 Gr Pr1 / 9
k L
 
 
 
 4 1/ 4 
h(0.03)
 0.2 
2.372  10  
0.03219   0.6  1 / 9 
   
  0.03  
h  1.909 W/m 2 .K
q  hA Tw  Tbm 
 1.909(0.6  0.4) 394.3  366.5
 12.74 W
125
p. 283
4.8 Boiling and Condensation
4.8A Boiling
 The boiling liquid is ausually contained in a vessel with a heating

surface of tubes or vertical or horizontal plates.
 The heating surface can be heated electrically or by a hot or

condensing liquid with the temperature above the boiling point.
 Bubbles of vapor are generated at the heated surface and rise

through the mass of liquid.
126
p. 284
4.8A Boiling
Mechanisms of boiling
127
p. 284
4.8A Boiling
128
p. 284
4.8A Boiling
Nucleate boiling (region A-B)
For horizontal surface

1 Limitations
P = 1 atm h  1043 T  3 q
(kW / m 2 )  16
A
0  T  7.76
h  5.56 T 
3 Limitations
q
16   240
A
7.32  T  14.4
129
p. 285
4.8A Boiling
For vertical surface
Limitations
1
h  537 T 
q
3
P = 1 atm 7 A
0  T  4.51
h  7.95 T 
3 Limitations
q
3  63
A
4.41  T  9.43
0.4
 p
For P atm abs h  Correction factor
1
P
h  2.55 T  e
3 1551 For forced convection boiling
Boiling inside tubes:-
inside tubes where P (kPa)
130
p. 285
4.8A Boiling
Film boiling
The heat-transfer rate is low in view of the large temperature
drop used, which is not utilized effectively.
For horizontal tube
1

 k v  v   L   v  g h fg  0.4c p T
3
 4
h  0.62  v

 D v T 
where
k v  thermal conductivity of vapour
 v  density of vapour
 L  density of liquid
h fg  latent heat of vapourization at Tsat
T  Tw  Tsat
Tsat  temperature of sat. vapour
D  outside tube diameter
 v  viscosity of vapour 131
p. 285
4.8A Boiling
Ex. 4.8.-1
Water is being boiled at 1 atm abs pressure in a jacketed kettle with steam
condensing in the jacket at 115.6 oC. The inside diameter of the kettle is 0.656m
and the height is 0.984m. The bottom is slightly curved but it will be assumed to
be flat. Both the bottom and the sides up to a height of 0.656m are jacketed. The
kettle surface for heat transfer is 3.2-mm stainless steel with a k of 16.27
W/m.K. The condensing steam coefficient hi inside the jacket has been estimated
as 10200 W/m2.K. Predict the boiling heat-transfer coefficient ho for the bottom
surface of the kettle
Solution
stainless steel
k  16.27 W/m.K Tsat  100 o C
water
Tsat  100 o C Tw
water
3.2 mm
hi  10200 W/m .K 2 T  115 .6 o C
T  115 .6 o C
132
p. 285-286
4.8A Boiling
T  Tw  Tsat
assume that Tw  110 o C
T  110  100  10 o C  7.32  T  14.4

h  5.56 T 
3
 5.56(10)3
 55600 W/m2 K
115 .6  100
q  hAT  m h fg 
Ro  Rwall  Ri
1 1 9.8 10 5
R0   
h0 A 10200 A A
x 3.2  10 3 19.66 105

Rwall   
kA 16.27 A A
1 1 17.98 10 5
Ri   
hA 5.56 103 ( A) A 133
p. 286
4.8A Boiling
q  55600 Ao (Tw  100) 

115.6  100 Ao
17.98  19.66  9.8 105
Tw  100  5.9
Tw  105.9 o C
 (This is lower than the assumed value of 110 o C)
For the second trial, Tw  108.3 o C will be used. We do trial and error until get
an accurate value.
134
p. 286
4.8A Boiling
Ex 4.8-1: Predict the boiling heat transfer coeffcient for the vertical jacketed
sides of the kettle given in example 4.8-1. Using this coefficient for the sides
and the coefficient from example 4.8-1 for the bottom, predict the total
heat transfer.
Trial 1:
Assume Tw = 107.8 oC, ΔT = 107.8 – 100 oC = 7.8 oC = 7.8 K
Ho = 7.95(ΔT )3 = 3773 W/m2. K
Ri= 1/hi.A = 9.8 x 10-5

Rw = Δx/kA = 19.66 x 10-5
Ro = 1/ho.A = 26.50 x 10-5
ΣR = Ri + Rw + Ro = 55.96 x 10-5
135
q = ΔT/ Ro = (115.6 – 100)/ ΣR
p. 286
4.8A Boiling
Area of the sides  cylinder πDL = 1.3519 m2

qS = A.ΔT/R = (115.6 – 100) (1.3519) / (55.96 x 10-5)
For the bottom of the kettle,

Use Tw = 108.2
ho = 5.56 (ΔT)3
Then calculate qB at the bottom using the area at the bottom (πD2/4)
Total heat transfer, qB + qS
136
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
 Condensation of a vapor to a liquid involves a change in

phase with large heat transfer coefficient.
 It occurs when saturated vapor such as condensed steam

comes into contact with a solid (e.g. vertical or horizontal
tubes or other surfaces) whose temperature is below
saturation temperature.
 A condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the

surface by the action of gravity.
 This film of liquid form the main resistance o heat transfer –

film type condensation.
137
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
 Another type of condensation is dropwise condensation where

a small drops are formed on the surface. These drops grows
and coalesce, and the fluid flows from the surface.
 The average coefficient 110 000 W/m2. K which is 10 times

larger than film type condensation.
 Dropwise condensation occurs on contaminated surfaces and

when impurities are present.
 Film condensation is more dependable and more common.

Normal design purposes, film condensation is assumed.
138
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
Film-condensation coefficients for vertical surfaces
x
dx
Tsat
-y
element
dx
y

139
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
The downward force = gravitational force-buoyance force
 l g   l   v  3
 
Mass transfer rate : - m
3 l
140
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
The rate of heat transfer if a linear temperature distribution is assumed in the

liquid between the wall and the vapor.
141
p. 287
4.8B Condensation
142
p. 289
4.8B Condensation
By integrating over the total length L, the average value of h is:
1
  l   l   v  gh fg k l 3  4
Average heat transfer coeff.: - h  0.943 
  l L Tsat  Tw  
For laminar flow, the average heat transfer coefficient are above 20%
The final recommended expression for vertical surfaces in

laminar flow is
1
hL   l   l   v  gh fg L3  4
N Nu   1.13 
kl   k
l l  T 
143
p. 289
4.8B Condensation
hL  g l 2 L3 3
Long vertical surface : - N Nu   0.0077   N Re  0.4
kl  2 
 l 
4m 4
Where N Re   (tube)
D l  l
4m 4
N Re   (plate)
W l  l
or
144
p. 289
4.8B Condensation
145
p. 290
4.8B Condensation
Ex. 4.8.-2
Steam saturated at 68.9 kPa is condensing on a vertical tube 0.305 m long having
an OD of 0.0254 m and a surface temperature of 86.11 oC. Calculate the average
heat-transfer coefficient.
Solution
Steam
Psat  10 psia  from the appendix A.2 - 9,
Tw  187 o F Tsat  193 o F
h fg  982.1 btu/Ibm
L  1 ft
Tsat  Tw 187  193
Tf    190 o F
2 2
1 in
146
p. 290
4.8B Condensation
From Appendix A.2 - 11, at T f  190 o F

 L  0.2228  10 3 Ibm/ft.s
kl  0.39 btu/ft.h.o F
 l  60.3 Ibm/ft3
We did not have m , so we cannot calculate N Re

 so we suppose to assume the process is laminar or turbulent
Assume Laminar flow, N Re  1800
hL   l   l   v  gh fg L3  4
N Nu   1.13 
kl   k
l l  T 
1
h(1)  60.3 60.3  0  (32.174)(3600) (982.1)(1) 
2 3 4
 1.13
0.39  3

 0.2228  10  3600 (0.93)(193  187) 

h  2350 btu/h.ft 2 .o F 147

p. 291
4.8B Condensation
q  hAT  m
 h fg
  1  
2350  (1)  (6)  m
 (982.1)
4 2 
m  3.77 Ibm/h
4m
N Re 
Dl
4(3.77)

1
  (0.2228 10 3  3600)
2
 73.5  ( 1800)
N Re  1800  so the assumption that laminar flow is correct
148
p. 291
4.8B Condensation
Film-condensation coefficients outside horizontal cylinders

For a vertical tier of N horizontal tube:
149
p. 291
4.9 Heat Exchanger
• The transfer of heat between two fluids is generally done in

heat exchangers
• The most common type is the hot and cold fluids do not come
into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube
wall or a flat or curved surface
• The transfer of heat from the hot fluid to the wall is convection,
through the tube wall by conduction, and then by convection to
the cold fluid
150
p. 291
4.9 Heat Exchanger
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
– simplest exchanger
– useful for small flow rates
– cocurrent or countercurrent
151
4.9 Heat Exchanger p. 291-292
Shell and Tube Exchanger
• Oil-refining, chemical, petrochemical and power companies

• Can be designed for almost any duty with a very wide range of
temperatures and pressures
• Can be built in many materials
• Many suppliers
• Repair can be by non-specialists
• Design methods and mechanical codes have been established
from many years of experience
152
p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger
153
p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger
1 shell pass & 1 tube passes (1-1 HE)
– most common in process industries

– larger and continuous flow – tubes arranged in bundle
– one single shell
– simplest = 1 shell pass & 1 tube pass = 1-1 counterflow exhanger
154
p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger
• Bundle of tubes in large cylindrical shell

• Baffles used both to support the tubes and to direct into multiple cross flow
• Gaps or clearance must be left between the baffle and the shell and
between the tubes and the baffle to enable assembly
• Baffles are used to establish a cross-flow and to induce turbulent mixing
of the shell-side fluid, both of which enhance convection.
155
p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger
156
p. 292
4.9 Heat Exchanger
Condenser
157
p. 293
4.9 Heat Exchanger
Cross Flow Exchanger
(a) One fluid mixed (gas) & one fluid unmixed (b) both fluids unmixed
• Cross flow hat exchanger is commonly used when a gas such

as air is being heated or cooled.
158
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 294
Factors
Multiple-pass heat exchanger is necessary to obtain a different

expression for the mean temperature difference, depending on
the arrangement of the shell and tube passes.
q = Ui Ai ∆Tm = Uo Ao ∆Tm
∆Tm = mean temperature = FT ∆Tlm
FT is correction factor 159

Factors
160
Factors
161
4.9B Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction p. 294-296
Factors
Ex. 4.9.-1
A 1-2 heat exchanger containing one shell pass and two tube passes
heats 2.52 kg/s of water from 21.1 to 54.4 oC by using hot water
under pressure entering at 115.6 and leaving at 48.9 oC. The outside
surface area of the tubes in the exchanger is Ao = 9.30 m2
a) Calculate the mean temperature different ΔTm in the exchanger
and the overall heat transfer coefficient Uo.
b) For the same temperatures but using a 2-4 exchanger, what
would be the ΔTm?
Solution
Tci = 21.2 C
0
Thi = 115.6 C
0
Tho = 48.9 C 162

Tco = 54.4 C
0
0
Factors
Assume Cpm of water of 4187 J/kg.K

Heat balance on the cold water,
Tco – Tci = (54.4 – 21.1) oC = 33.3 oC = 33.3 K
q = m Cpm(Tco – Tci) = (2.52)(4187)(54.4 – 21.1) = 351356 W
The log mean temperature difference
Calculate the Z and Y values to find FT value
163
4.9B
4.9BLog-Mean-Temperature-Difference
Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correctionp. 296
Correction p. 296
Factors
Factors
0.74
151
From Fig. 4.9-4 (a) , FT = 0.74 164
Factors
Thus, the mean temperature difference is:
Tm FT Tlm 0.74(42.3) 31.3C 31.3K
Rearranging the heat transfer equation to solve for Uo and

substituting the known values, we have
165
Factors
b)
0.94
From Fig. 4.9-4 (b) , FT = 0.94
166
Factors
Thus, the mean temperature difference is:
Tm FT Tlm 0.94(42.3) 39.8C 39.8 K
The 2-4 exchanger utilizes more of the available temperature

driving force
167
4.9C Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness p. 296
168
Heat balance for cold (C) and hot (H)
169
For the case of a single-pass, counterflow exchanger
170
Ex. 4.9.-2
Solution
171
172
0.71
173
174
4.9D Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values p. 299
175
After a period, the performance of the heat exchanger gets degraded as;
heat transfer surface may become
•coated with various deposits
•corroded due to interaction between fluid and material.
•Fouling factor depends on operating temperature & velocity of the fluids
as well as the length of service.
176
177

Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer

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Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer

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Principles of Steady-State Heat Transfer

Department of Chemical Engineering

4.1 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Alcohol distillation Drying of lumber Burning of fuel Evaporation

• Heat transfer occurs because of a temperature-difference driving force and

Heat transport and Fourier’s law

Assuming the rate of transfer of heat occurs only conduction:

Unsteady-state balance for heat transfer in control volume

 Conduction : the transfer of heat can be conducted through solids,

Heat flux (W/m2) Temperature gradient in the x-dir

1 btu/h. ft2 = 3.1546 W/m2

Steady-state heat transfer through a flat wall of cross-sectional area, A, constant

The thermal conductivity of different materials have been

For liquid, the k varies moderately

a and b are empirical constants

App A.3 thermal conductivities for inorganic and organic materials

Flowing fluid at Tf Heated surface at Tw

Convection : Newton’s Law Cooling

Tf= Tb (bulk of temperature)

1 btu/h. ft2. oF = 5.6783 W/m2. K

Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall

For the k is not constant:

1-D (Radial) Steady-State Heat Conduction Through Hollow Cylinder

Inner surface of cylinder is at T1 and outer at T2.

Heat Flow Rate:

assume length of tubing is 1 m

Since 15.2 W is removed for 1 m of length of tube, the length needed is

The cross-sectional area to the heat flow is

Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and integrating:

Rearrange the Eq.

The interface temperature, T2 between pine wood and cork board,

Heat transfer occurs through multilayers of

the log mean area of the metal tube

the outside area of the metal tube

Heat is generated inside the conducting medium, chemical reaction, biological

Heat Generation in plane wall

In + Generation = Out + Accumulation

Integrating the Eq.

Integrating again the Eq.

Heat Generation in Cylinder

In + Generation = Out + Accumulation To

Integrating the Eq.

Integrating again the Eq.

insulation where ln(r2 / r1 )

T2 electric wire plastic T2  400 K

(c) with insulation, r2  (2.5  1.5 / 2) 10 3  3.25 10 3 m

CJG means Geankoplis text

CJG 4.1-2, 4.2-2, 4.2-4, 4.2-5, 4.3-1, 4.3-3,4.3-7

2-D Steady state conduction

• The 2-D conduction is occurring in most cases. Analytical

General steps to use the graphical method:

S is conduction shape factor

q is the heat-transfer rate (W)

h (convective coefficient or film coefficient)

Laminar flow lower heat-transfer coefficient

Turbulent flow greater heat-transfer coefficient

Classification of convective heat transfer:

•Free or natural convection (fluid moved by temperature difference/density

•Forced convection (fluid moved by mechanicals such as fan, propeller or

h (film coefficient) are affected:

Parameters in convective heat transfer:

h : heat transfer coefficient

Heat transfer by conduction

4.1 　 Introduction and Mechanisms of Heat Transfer