14GET81 – PROFESSIONAL

ETHICS

By
S.ARUNA
AP/EEE/KEC
 UNIT – I Content
• Understanding Morals, Values and Ethics
• Honesty, Integrity
• Work Ethic
• Service and Learning
• Civic Virtue
• Caring and Sharing
• Courage
• Valuing Time
• Co-operation, Commitment, Empathy
• Self-Confidence, Character
• Spirituality
• Senses of ‘Engineering Ethics’
• Variety of Moral Issues
• Types of Inquiry
 FIVE Core Human Values
1. Right Conduct
2. Peace
3. Truth
4. Love
5. Non-Violence

Core values contain all that makes a

human being noble, caring and kind.
Universal Values
 RIGHT CONDUCT

• To practice acceptance of good and rejection

of the bad according the law and one’s own
conscience (principles).
• To develop respect for parents, teachers and
elders and to accept responsibility for one’s
own actions
• To develop self-reliance, exercise initiative
and to do one’s best at everything one attempts
 PEACE

• To develop self respect, concentration, inner

contentment (satisfaction) and calmness
• To cooperate with and value the contributions
of others, including their constructive
feedback concerning our behaviour
• To develop forgiveness, patience, forbearance
and self-control
 TRUTH

• To speak and act truthfully and confidently

with a clean and clear conscience
• To develop wisdom, the power of reason,
intuition (perception) and a sense of inquiry
• To understand the oneness of all creation and
the truth behind all faiths
 LOVE

• To love everybody unconditionally

• To develop compassion (concern), kindness,
generosity and greatness of spirit
• To care for our environment, each other and
ourselves
 NON - VIOLENCE

• To avoid harming others in thought, word and

deed
• To develop reverence (respect) and concern for
all living beings, all of nature and to engage in
acts of selfless service
• To practice forbearance (self-control) and
tolerance towards others
 Honesty
• Honesty is the foundation for trust.
• It is the highest form of intimacy.
• It is the best policy at all times.
“Being honest never hurts anyone.
Being a liar hurts only you”
 Integrity
• Integrity is doing the right thing even when no
one is watching.
• We adhere to our moral and ethical principles
and we work honestly and fairly with the
public and each other.
• No matter how educated, talented, rich or cool
you believe you are, how you treat people
ultimately tells all. Integrity is everything.
 Work Ethic

• By establishing an appropriate company policy

or a code of ethics.
• By using a formally appointed ethics
committee.
• By teaching ethics in management
development programs.
 Service and Learning
• Service is an act of help or assistance when
somebody is in distress.
• May be social service or any assistance at
personal level.
• Learning means the act of gaining knowledge
by study, instruction or scholarship.
 Civic Virtue

• Virtue is a quality of character that allows one

to succeed at the roles and activities one
undertakes.
• Virtue are pervasive traits of character that
allows us to fit into a particular society.
 Caring and Sharing

• Caring for other persons (including all living

beings).
• Sharing their sorrows and happiness is the
heart of the moral life.
 Courage

• Courage is a virtue necessary to a wide range

of human activities and those who lack
courage will rarely flourish.
• Courage is the strength of character to face
and overcome what we fear.
• Some may fear intimacy or psychological
vulnerability or commitment or taking risk to
gain what they desire.
 Valuing Time

• Time is viewed as an asset with a perishable

value.
• It is also assumed to be a linear entity which
when utilized improperly or inefficiently is
wasted.
• People are socialized to value punctuality and
promptness and express strong disapprovals
towards tardiness (lethargy) and excessive
delays.
 Co – operation

• Healthy competition is a powerful motive

behind all kinds of success.
• Not mere atavistic competition (unhealthy
competition) suits sense-bound animals and
not mind-thought-based man.
• Competition should comes between similar
performers.
 Commitment and Empathy

• Commitment means strong belief in

something, a promise to do something,
enthusiasm, duty/responsibility.
• Empathy means the power of understanding
and imaginatively entering into other person’s
feelings.
 Self-Confidence
• Self-confidence, an internal state of mind, can
describe the attitudes and beliefs people hold
regarding their abilities and strengths.
• People who have high levels of self-
confidence may feel sure they will achieve
what they set out to do and maintain a steady
sense of control over their lives.
• Self-confident people generally trust in their
abilities, their power, and their judgment.
 Character

• A moral demeanor that refers to one’s outward

demeanor as judged by society.
• Character refers to one’s virtue, or how one
lives by a set of moral values.
• A person of character is one who is known to
be honest, just, fair and decent to others.
 Spirituality
• The awakening of the essential internal man
assures all success.
• The people are always taught to put the spirit
above matter to make internal excellence lead
the quest for external excellence.
• The left brain activities of reason, accumulation
of wealth and dynamism must be guided by the
right brain activities of sacrifice, love and
holistic actions.
 Senses of Engineering Ethics
• Engineering Ethics is the activity and discipline aimed at
understanding the moral values that ought to guide
engineering practice, resolving moral issues in engineering
and justifying moral judgments concerning engineering.
• Engineering ethics would refer to the set of specifically
moral problems and issues related to engineering.
• Engineering ethics would be the currently accepted codes
and standards of conduct endorsed by various groups of
engineers and engineering societies.
• Engineering Ethics amounts to the set of justified moral
principles of obligation , rights and ideals.
 Variety of Moral Issues
Two broad Approaches:
• Micro-Ethics :
This approach gives more stress on some typical
and everyday problems which play an important
role in the field of Engineering and in the
profession of an Engineer.
• Macro-Ethics:
This approach deals with all the societal problems
which are unknown and suddenly burst out on a
local i.e., regional and national level.
 Types of Inquiry
• Normative Inquiries
Normative inquiries identify and justify the
morally desirable norms that guide individuals or
groups.
It also has the theoretical goal of justifying
particular moral judgments. Normative questions
are about what ought to be and what is good, based
on moral values.
• Conceptual Inquiries
Conceptual inquiries clarify the concepts and issues in
engineering ethics.
It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or
principles that are expressed by words or by questions and
statements.
For example
(a) What is meant by safety?
(b) How is it related to risk?
(c) What is a bribe?
(d) What is a profession?
• Factual Inquiries
Factual or descriptive inquiries uncover information
regarding value issues.
It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and
resolving value issues.
Researcher conduct factual inquiries using mathematical
or statistical techniques.
For example,
a). How were the benefits assessed?
b). What are procedures followed in risk assessment?
c). What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking
water being polluted?
d). Who conducted the tests on materials?
 UNIT – II Content
• Moral dilemmas
• Moral Autonomy
• Kohlberg’s Theory
• Gilligan’s Theory
• Consensus and Controversy
• Models of Professional Roles
• Theories about Right Action
• Self – Interest
• Customs and Religion
• Uses of Ethical Theories
• Meaning of Engineering Experimentation
• Engineers as Responsible Experimenters
 Moral Dilemmas
• Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into
conflict, or in which the application of
moral values are problems, and one is not clear of the
immediate choice or solution of the problems.
• Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations.
• These situations do not mean that things
had gone wrong, but they only indicate the presence of moral
complexity.
• This makes the decision making complex.
• For example, a person promised to meet a friend and dine, but
he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident - one
has to fix the priority.
• The three complex situations leading to moral dilemmas are:
1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish
between good and bad (right or wrong) principle. Good means
an action that is obligatory. For example, code of ethics
specifies that one should obey the laws and follow standards.
Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain confidentiality.
2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to
choose between two good moral solutions. One has to fix
priority, through knowledge or value system.
3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more
solutions and none of them mandatory. These solutions may
be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects. One
has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze
and rank the decisions. Select the best suitable, under the
existing and the most probable conditions.
 Steps to Solve Dilemma
The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are:
1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to
identify the relevant moral values from among duties, rights, goods
and obligations is obtained (conceptual inquiry).
2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry)
relevant to the situation.
3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value
system (conceptual inquiry).
4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities,
and suggestions on various alternatives.
6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or
assumed. If there is no ideal solution, we arrive at a partially
satisfactory or satisfying’ solution.
 Moral Autonomy

• Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and

actions exercised on the basis of moral concern
for other people and recognition of good moral
reasons. Alternatively, moral autonomy means
‘self determinant or independent’.
• Viewing engineering as social experimentation
will promote autonomous participation and
retain one’s professional identity.
• Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time
schedules and fear of foreign competition threatens
this autonomy.
• The attitude of the management should allow latitude
in the judgments of their engineers on moral issues.
• If management views profitability is more important
than consistent quality and retention of the customers
that discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are
compelled to seek the support from their professional
societies and outside organizations for moral support.
• The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as
follows:
1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability
to distinguish as well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and
religion
2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing
arguments on different aspects of moral issues
3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on
facts
4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions
for practical difficulties
5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including
willingness to undergo and tolerate some uncertainty while making
decisions,
6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing
tolerance of different perspectives among morally reasonable people,
and
7. Maintaining moral integrity.
• Autonomy which is the independence in making
decisions and actions, is different from authority.
• Authority provides freedom for action, specified
within limits, depending on the situation.
• Moral autonomy and respect for authority can
coexist. They are not against each other.
• If the authority of the engineer and the moral
autonomy of the operator are in conflict, a consensus
is obtained by the two, upon discussion and mutual
understanding their limits.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
 3 Levels and 6 Stages
Moral Stage Definition of what is ‘good’ Values/Actions
Pre conventional Level obedience
Stage 1: Obedience and Action that is rewarded and not
punishment punished

Stage 2: Market Action that is agreeable to the self-interest

exchange child and child’s partner

Conventional Level Action that wins approval from conformity

Stage 3: Peer opinion friends or peers

Stage 4: Law and order Action that conforms to the law-and-order

community customs or laws

Post conventional Action that follows socially human rights

Level accepted ways of making decisions
Stage 5: Social contract

Stage 6: Universal Action that is consistent with self- universal human ethics
principles chosen, general principles
 Gilligan’s Theory
Positions of moral development according to Gilligan

Moral Position Definition of what is morally

good
Position 1: Survival orientation Action that considers one’s
personal needs only
Position 2: Conventional care Action that considers others’
(caring for others) needs or preferences, but not
one’s own
Position 3: Integrated care Action that attempts to
coordinate one’s own personal
needs with those of others
 CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY

• Consensus – Agreement
• Controversy – Conflict or Disagreement
 CONSENSUS
• The conductor of a music orchestra has authority
over the musicians and his authority is respected by
them by consensus as otherwise the music
performance will suffer. Hence the authority and
autonomy are compatible.
• On the other hand, tension arises between the needs
for autonomy and the need for concerns about
authority. The difference between the two should be
discussed openly to resolve the issue to the common
good.
 CONTROVERSY
• All individuals will not arrive at same verdict during
their exercising moral autonomy.
• This situation may likely to end in controversy.
• In this case, good amount of tolerance among the
individuals who are autonomous, reasonable and
responsible is necessary.
• Aristotle noted long ago that morality is not as
precise and clear-cut as arithmetic.
• Aim of teaching engineering ethics is not to get
unanimous conformity of outlook by indoctrination,
authoritarian and dogmatic teaching, to improve
promotion of tolerance in the exercise of moral
autonomy.
PROFESSION
PROFESSIONALISM
 PROFESSIONAL
The criteria for achieving and sustaining professional status or
professionalism are:
1. Advanced expertise: The expertise includes sophisticated skills and
theoretical knowledge in exercising judgment. This means a professional
should analyse the problem in specific known area, in an objective
manner.
2. Self-regulation: One should analyse the problem independent of self-
interest and direct to a decision towards the best interest of the
clients/customers. An autonomous judgment (unbiased and on merits
only) is expected. In such situations, the codes of conduct of professional
societies are followed as guidance.
3. Public good: One should not be a mere paid employee of an individual or a
teaching college or manufacturing organization, to execute whatever the
employer wants one to do. The job should be recognised by the public. The
concerted efforts in the job should be towards promotion of the welfare,
safety, and health of the public.
 CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristics of the ‘profession’ as distinct from

‘non-professional occupation’ are
1. Extensive Training
2. Knowledge and Skills
3. Monopoly (domination, control)
4. Autonomy in Workplace
5. Ethical Standards
 The Engineering Profession
• How we view ourselves:
– Problem-solvers
– Engineering is enjoyable
– Engineering benefits people, provides a public
service
– Engineering provides the most freedom of all
professions
– Engineering is an honorable profession
 The Engineering Profession
How the public views on Engineering:
– The Engineer’s Role
• Engineers as Utilitarian (practical)
• Engineers as Positivist
• Applied Physical Scientist
– This role does not mesh well with an overarching
“social science” bias of the public.
 Professional Ethics & Virtues

• Virtue means Good character of an individual

• It is defined as moral distinction of goodness
• It can be defined as excellence of moral
behavior
 The Four Main Virtues

• Prudence (mind) (விவேகம்): to think about a moral

problem clearly and completely
• Temperance (emotions) (தன்னடக்கம்): control
attraction to positive emotions
• Fortitude (emotions) (மனோபலம்): control aversion for
negative emotions
• Justice (will) (நீதி): choose according to truth and
fairness.
 Virtue Ethics
Focuses on the type of person we should strive to be
• Actions which reflect good character traits (virtues) are inherently
right
• Actions which reflect bad character traits (vices) are inherently
wrong
• Virtue ethics are tied more to individual behavior than to that of an
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 Theories about right action
The ethical theories are useful in many aspects.
• In understanding moral dilemma. They provide
clarity, consistency, systematic and comprehensive
understanding.
• It provides practical guidance in moral issues
towards the solution.
• Justifying professional obligations and decisions
• In relating ordinary and professional morality.
 Criteria of theories
Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various ethical
theories and deciding upon the best.
• The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with
concepts that are logically connected.
• It must be internally consistent, i.e., none of its principles
conflicts with any other
• The theory and its defence must depend, only upon facts.
• It must organize basic moral values in systematic and
comprehensive manner. It is to fix priority of values and
provide guidance in all situations
• It must provide guidance compatible with our moral
convictions (judgments) about concrete situations.
 Ethical theories/Approaches

• Several ethical theories have been developed

over different times, each of them stressing
certain ethical principles or features.
• Each stresses a view and many a times, we find
that these theories converge and reinforce the
ethics, in deciding upon the actions and
justifying the results.
 Types of Ethical Theories
Theory Basic Concept

Virtue Ethics Theory Virtues and Vices

Right Ethics Theory Human Rights

Duty Ethics Theory Duties to respect

persons
Utilitarianism theory Most good for the most
people
Aristotle’s theory of the “Golden Mean”

• In this theory “virtue of wisdom or good

judgement is highly essential for
accomplishing the rational activities
successfully ”
• As per this theory, virtues to find the ‘golden
mean’ between the extremes of excess and
deficiency
 Example
• Courage is ‘golden mean’ between the two
extreme moral grounds foolhardiness(the
excess of rashness) and cowardice(the
deficiency of self control)
• (one should be courageous but should not go
to extreme of being violent)
• The skills in avoiding offences and
confidentiality

Foolhardiness: The trait of giving little thought to danger

 Utilitarian Theory

Utilitarian Theory
• The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th
century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• to help legislators determine which laws were morally
best. They suggested that the standard of right conduct
is maximization of good consequences.
• Good consequences mean either ‘utilities’ or the
‘balance of good over evil’.
• This approach weighs the costs and benefits. Right
actions are the ones that produce the greatest
satisfaction of the preferences of the affected persons.
 Utilitarian Theory
In analyzing an issue in this approach,
we have to:
• (a) Identify the various courses of action available to us.
• (b) Ask who will be affected by each action and what
benefits or harms will be derived from each.
• (c) Choose the action that will produce the greatest
benefits and the least harm. The ethical
action is the one that provides the greatest good
for the greatest number.
 Utilitarian Theory
• The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill
(1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than on general rules. An
action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the
most people involved.
• The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard
Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the rules, such as ‘do not
steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary
importance.
• He suggested that individual actions are right when they are
required by set of rules which maximizes the
public good.
 Act and Rule theory
Act utilitarianism subscribes precisely to the definition of
utilitarianism—
• a person performs the acts that benefit the most people,
regardless of personal feelings or the societal constraints such
as laws.
Rule utilitarianism takes into account the
• law and is concerned with fairness.
• A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but
through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore,
added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice
and includes beneficence at the same time.
 Example
For example,
• stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the
employee more than the loss to the employer.
• As per Act, utilitarian this action is right.
• But rule utilitarian observes this as wrong, because the employee
should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the employees’.
• In another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated
with the blame for the mistakes they have not committed.
• The process is unfair although this results in promotion of
overall good.
 Right ethics
In ethical theories based on rights,
• the rights established by a society are protected and given
the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically
correct and valid since a large population endorses them.
• Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if they
have the ability and resources to do so.
For example, a person may say that her friend may borrow
her laptop for the afternoon. The friend who was given the
ability to borrow the laptop now has a right to the laptop in
the afternoon.
 Virtue ethics
• The virtue ethical theory judges a person by
his/her character rather than by an action that
may deviate from his/her normal behavior.
• It takes the person’s morals, reputation, and
motivation into account when rating an
unusual and irregular behavior that is
considered unethical.
 Example
• For instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that was later
detected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will
understand the person’s character and will judge the friend
accordingly.
• If the plagiarizer normally follows the rules and has good
standing amongst his colleagues, the peer who encounters the
plagiarized passage may be able to judge his friend more
leniently.
• Conversely, a person who has a reputation for academic
misconduct is more likely to be judged harshly for plagiarizing
because of his/her consistent past of unethical behavior.
 Duty Ethics
• The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-
1804) states, that actions are consequences of performance of
one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause suffering of
others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’,
‘being grateful’, ‘keeping
promises’ etc.
• The stress is on the universal principle of respect for autonomy
i.e., respect and rationality of persons.
• As per Kant we have duties to ourselves, as we are rational and
autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide; a
duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful drugs.
 Example
For example,
• we should be honest because honesty is
required by duty. A businessman is to be
honest because honesty pays — in terms of
profits from customers and from avoiding jail
for dishonesty.
 Duty Ethics
• On the other hand, the DUTY ethics theory, as
enunciated by John Rawl, gave importance
to the actions that would be voluntarily
agreed upon by all persons concerned,
assuming impartiality
 Duty ethics
1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises.
2. Reparation : duty to compensate others when we harm
them.
3. Gratitude : duty to thank those who help us.
4. Justice : duty to recognize merit.
5. Beneficence : duty to recognize inequality and improve
the condition of others.
6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue and
intelligence.
7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others.
 Self-Interest
• Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is pursuing
what is good for oneself.
• It is very ethical to possess self-interest.
• The ethical egoists do not accept the well being of the community
or caring for others.
• This self interest should not degenerate into egoism or selfishness,
i.e., maximizing only own good in the pursuit of self-interest.
• We are also interdependent, as much as independent.
• To be selfishly preoccupied with one’s own private good to the
point of indifference and disregard for the good of others will
generally cut one off from rewarding friendships and love.
 Self-Interest
• The ethical egoists hold that the society benefits to maximum
when (a) the individuals pursue their personal good and
(b) the individual organizations pursue maximum profit in a
competitive enterprise.
• This is claimed to improve the economy of the country as a
whole, besides the individuals.
• Self-respect includes recognition of our vulnerabilities and
interdependencies. Hence, it is compatible with caring for
ourselves as well as others.
• The principles of ‘Live and let (others) live’, and ‘reasonably fair
competition’ are recommended to professionals by the ethicists.
 Customs
• As we live in a society which is of increasingly diverse nature, it is more
important to have tolerance for various customs and outlooks.
• Ethical pluralism views that there may be alternative moral attitudes that are
reasonable. But none of the moral perspectives can be accepted completely by
all the rational and the morally concerned persons.
• Ethical pluralism allows the customs which plays an important role in
deciding how we should act.
• Moral values are many, varied and flexible. So, these moral values allow
considerable variation in how different individuals and groups understand and
apply them in their day-today activities.
• In other words, to be precise, reasonable persons always have reasonable
disagreement on moral issues, including issues in engineering ethics.
 Ethical Relativism

• Ethical Relativism, an objectionable view,

should not be confused with Ethical Pluralism.
As per Ethical relativism says that actions are
morally right when they are approved by law
or custom and they are said to be wrong when
they violate laws or customs. Ethical
relativism tries to reduce moral values to laws,
conventions and customs of societies.
 Ethical Relativism
What is the necessary for a person to accept ethical relativism?
1. The laws and customs seem to be definite, real and clear – cut.
They help to reduce the endless disputes about right and wrong.
Moreover, laws seem to be an objective way to approach values.
2. The second reason for accepting ethical relativism is because it
believes the values are subjective at the cultural level. They also
state that the moral standards are varied from one culture to
another. The only kind of objectivity is relative to a given set of
laws in a given society. This relativity of morality encourages
the virtue of tolerance of difference among societies.
 Religion
• Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views and
moral values, over geographical regions. Christianity has
influenced the Western Countries, Islam in the Middle-East
Countries, Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia and Confucianism in
China.
• Further, there is a strong psychological link between the moral
and religious beliefs of people following various religions and
faiths. Religions support moral responsibility.
• They have set high moral standards. Faith in the religions
provides trust and this trust inspires people to be moral.
• The religions insist on tolerance and moral concern for others.
Many professionals who posses religious beliefs are motivated
 Religion
• Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards. For
example, Hindhuism holds polytheistic (many gods) view and
virtues of devotion and surrender to high order.
• Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of
Love, Faith and Hope. Buddhism is non-theistic and focuses
on compassion and Islam on one deity and adherence of ishan
(piety or pursuit of excellence) and prayer.
• Judaism stresses the virtue of ‘tsedakah’ (righteousness). But
many religious sects have adopted poor moral standards, e.g.,
many religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women.
• The right to worship is denied for some people.
• People are killed in the name of or to promote religion.
• Thus conflicts exist between the ‘secular’ and religious people
and between one religion and another.
 Uses of Ethical Theories
The following three are the most important
uses:
1. Understanding moral dilemmas.
2. Justifying professional obligations and ideas and
3. Relating ordinary and professional morality
• Moral obligations concerning safety
• Joining a professional society
• Agreements by hired companies.
• Entering their careers, promise the public to protect and
safeguard in performing their tasks.
 Engineering as Experimentation
• Experimentation plays an important role in the process of
designing the product.
• When it is decided to change a new engineering concept into
its first rough design, preliminary tests or simulation should be
conducted.
• Using formal experimental methods, the materials and
methods of designing are tried out.
• These tests may be based on more detailed designs.
• The test for designing should be evolved till the final product
produced.
• With the help of feedback of several tests, further modification
can be made if necessary.
• Beyond these tests and experiments, each engineering project
has to be viewed as an experiment.
 Engineering as Experimentation
• Example: Titanic (1522 dead out of 2227)!
Affected ship design...
• Example: Software engineering and test:
–  How much? Expensive!
–  Sophistication level of software, how deployed matters
–  Historical information about software test is used to know
how much is needed now
–  But your project helps contribute knowledge to how much is
needed later!
•  Engineering projects are experiments that involve technology
development and humans
 The Design Process
Engineering product design steps:
Concepts
Preliminary designs, tests
More detailed designs
More tests (? - may cost $$)
Production
More tests! (? - may cost $$$)
The public purchases/uses the product
More tests!!! How to gather results of these tests?
Role of profits/competition with other companies?
Dangerous!!! Engineers are asked to do this!
 Similarities to Standard Experiments
Projects carried out in partial ignorance, outcomes are uncertain
–  Engineers are asked to make things work without all the
available scientific knowledge (including that about
humans), safety facts, environment, health, social
influences, etc.

–  Good design relies on information gathered before and

after a product leaves the factory - especially when the
product is tested in its true “environment,” not fake
ones used to simulate the real environment (e.g.,
temperature cycling electronic products)
 Using the public to perform tests…

•  We redesign using the public to test our

products!
•  Special care is obviously needed for safety,
avoiding loss of customers
•  Example: Software test for popular software
(e.g., word processing programs, spreadsheets, etc.),
computer hardware
•  Diligence helps, but also…
 Learning from the Past
•  Product history matters! Respect the past!
•  Can you always know it? Competence, openness
to learning. Do not be afraid to ask!
•  Can you know about a competitor’s safety
statistics?
•  Are there good communication channels in your
own company?
•  Between different departments?
•  Across “generations” of engineers?
•  Is there a dangerous “generation gap” between young and old engineers?
 Contrasts with Standard Experiments
•  Experiment control?
–  Cannot control what humans may do with a product
–  What applications will it be used for?
–  Will they subject it to unforeseen stresses?
•  Informed consent? (e.g., in medical trials) (knowledge and voluntariness)
–  Keystone of engineer - public interaction
–  What “experiments” are acceptable? Keep in mind that
there is a large variance on the types of customers you
might have. Can they all read?
•  Knowledge gained? Seek the unexpected! (gain new knowledge)
Unexpected outcomes send us on a search for new knowledge (experiment of
scientific type)
 Responsible Experimentalists
Four Elements are pertinent:
1.  Conscientiousness: Protect safety knowledge (human
subjects), respect right of consent of public
2. Comprehensive perspective: Awareness of experimental
nature of projects, forecasting of possible side effects, a
reasonable effort to monitor them.
3.  Moral autonomy: Personally engaged, thoughtful,
involvement in project
4.  Accountability: Accept responsibility for results of a
project (avoid fragmentation, diffusion, time pressures)
 Taking charge…
•  Engineers are not the sole experimenters
–  Managers
–  Marketing people
–  Public
•  But, “with knowledge comes responsibility”
•  Engineers are in a unique position to:
–  Monitor projects
–  Identify risks
–  Develop facts for informed consent
•  An engineering professional will take on the
responsibility
 Self Control

It is a virtue of maintaining personal

discipline. It means a strong will and
motivation and avoidance of fear, hatred, lack
of efforts, temptation, self-deception, and
emotional response.
It encompasses courage and good
judgment also.
Self-respect promotes self-control.
 UNIT – III Content
• Codes of Ethics for Engineers
• A Balanced outlook on law
• The Challenger Case study
• Safety and Risk
• Assessment of Safety and Risk
• Risk benefit analysis and reducing risk
• Bhobal Gas Tragedy
• Chernobyl case studies
 Codes of Ethics for Engineers
• The codes of ethics have to be adopted by engineering
societies as well as by engineers.
• These codes exhibit the rights, duties, and obligations of the
members of a profession.
• Codes are the set of laws and standards.
• A code of ethics provides a framework for ethical judgment
for a professional.
• It serves only as a starting point for ethical decision-making.
• Ethical codes do not establish the new ethical principles.
• They repeat only the principles and standards that are already
accepted as responsible engineering practice.
• A code defines the roles and responsibilities of professionals.
 Roles of codes and its functions

• Inspiration and Guidance

• Support
• Deterrence and Discipline
• Education and Mutual Understanding
• Contributing to the profession’s Public Image
• Protecting the Status Quo
• Promoting Business Interests
 Inspiration and Guidance
The following engineering societies have published
codes of ethics.
• AAES - American Association of Engineering
Societies
• ABET - Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology (USA)
• NSPE - National Society of Professional Engineer
(USA)
• IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (USA)
• AICTE - All India Council for Technical Education
(India)
• Support
Codes always support an engineer who follows the ethical
principles. Codes give engineers a positive, a possible good
support for standing on moral issues. Codes
also serve as a legal support for engineers.
• Deterrence and Discipline
Codes act as a deterrent because they never encourage to
act immorally. They also provide discipline among the
Engineers to act morally on the basis of codes does
not overrule the rights of those being investigated.
• Education and Mutual Understanding
Codes have to be circulated and approved officially by the
professionals, the public and government organizations which
concern with the moral responsibilities of engineers and
organizations.
• Contributing to the Profession’s Public Image
Codes help to create a good image to the public of an
ethically committed profession. It helps the engineers in an
effective manner to serve the public. They also gives self-
regulation for the profession itself.
• Protecting the Status Quo
Codes determine ethical conventions which help to create
an agreed upon minimum level of ethical conduct. But they
can also suppress the disagreement within the profession.
• Promoting Business Interests
Codes help to improve the business interests. They help to
moralize the business dealings to benefit those within the
profession.
 Limitations of Codes
• Codes are restricted to general and vague wordings. Due to
this limitation they cannot be applicable to all situations
directly. It is also impossible to analyze fully and
predict the full range of moral problems that arises in a
complex profession.
• Engineering codes often have internal conflicts. So they can't
give a solution or method for resolving the conflict.
• They cannot be treated as the final moral authority for any
professional conduct. Codes represent a compromise between
differing judgments and also developed among heated
committee disagreements.
 Limitations of Codes

• Only a few practicing engineers are the members of

Professional Societies and so they can not be compelled
to abide by their codes.
• Many engineers who are the members of Professional
Societies are not aware of the existence of the codes of
their societies and they never go through it.
• Codes can be reproduced in a very rapid manner.
• Codes are said to be coercive i.e., implemented by threat
or force.
 A Balanced Outlook on Law
• A balanced outlook on laws stresses the necessity of laws and
regulations and their limitations in directing engineering
practice.
• In order to live, work and play together in harmony as a
society, there must be a balance between individual needs and
desires against collective needs and desires.
• Only ethical conduct can provide such a balance. This ethical
conduct can be applied only with the help of laws.
• Laws are important as the people are not fully responsible and
because of the competitive nature of the free enterprise system
which does not encourage moral initiative.
• The model of engineering as social experimentation allows for
the importance of clear laws to be effectively enforced.
 A Balanced Outlook on Law - Examples
• Babylon’s Building Code: (1758 B.C.)
This code was made by Hammurabi, king of Babylon. He
formed a code for builders of his time and all the builders were
forced to follow the code by law.
“If a builder has built a house for a man and has not made
his work sound and the house which he has built was fallen
down and so caused the death of the householder, that builder
shall be put to death. If it causes the death of the house holder’s
son, they shall put that builder’s son to death. If it causes the
death of the house holder’s slave, he shall give slave to the
householder. If it destroys property he shall replace anything it
has destroyed, he shall rebuild the house which has fallen down
from his own property. If a builder has built a house for a man
and does not make his work perfect and the wall bulges, that
builder shall put that wall into sound condition at his own cost”.
 A Balanced Outlook on Law - Examples
• The United States Steamboat Code: [1852 A.D]
Steam engines in the past were very large and heavy. James Watt, Oliver
Evans and Richard Trevethik modified the old steam engines by removing
condensers and made them compact. Beyond careful calculations and guidelines,
explosions of boiler happened on steam boats, because of the high speed of the
boats.
The safety valves were unable to keep steam pressure up causing explosion.
During that period in18th century, more than 2500 people were killed and 2000
people were injured because of the explosion of boilers in steam boats.
Due to this, the ruling congress in USA passed a law which provided for
inspection of the safety aspects of ships and their boilers and engines. But his law
turned out to be ineffective due to the corruptions of the inspectors and also their
inadequate training regarding the safety checking.
Then Alfred Guthiro, an engineer of Illinoise had inspected about 200 steam
boats on his own cost and found out the reasons for the boiler explosions and made
a report. His recommendations were published by a Senator Shields of Illinoise and
incorporated in senate documents.
With the help of this, another law was passed. Now it is in the hands of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers who formulated the standards for
producing steam boats.
 The Challenger Case Study
• The Challenger Space Shuttle exploded on January
28, 1986
• Caused by an O-ring failure
• All 7 crew members perished
 Process Description

O-ring
• SRB segments
diameter growth
• Clearance between
O-ring and upstream
channel wall
• Putty
• Temperature effects
 Four Main Causes of O-Ring Failure
• Pre-flight Leak Tests
• O-Ring Erosions
• Joint Rotation
• Low Temperatures
 Poor Risk Management

• Risks were managed using Critical Items Lists

– Criticality 1-Loss of Life or Ship
– Criticality 2-Mission Aborted
• CIL Flaws
– Unreliable
• In previous missions, criticality1 issues occurred but loss of
life/ship did not
– Negotiable
• Identified risks could later be waived
 Known Potential Problems
• O-rings were “Criticality 1” feature
• O-ring seal failure on previous missions
– Launch Constraint placed on subsequent launches
• These constraints had been imposed and regularly waived by
the SRB Project Manager
• Very low ambient temperatures recognized as concern by
Tiokol
– O-ring performance at this temperature not understood
• NASA officials pressured Tiokol to withdraw its concerns
• Upper officials at NASA were unaware of these discussions
and ignorantly approved launch
 Ultimate Results

• Death of all seven crew members

• Space Shuttle program suspended for 32 months
• Tiokol accepted liability and forfeited $10 million of
their incentive fee
• Country watching the launch live demoralized
• Replacement Shuttle for the Challenger cost $1.7
billion
 Lessons Learned

• Communication is key
• Only operate in tested conditions
• Safety over schedule
 Safety and Risk
Risk is a key element in any engineering design.

Concept of Safety:
• A thing is safe if its risks are judged to be acceptable.
• Safety are tactily value judgments about what is
acceptable risk to a given person or group.
 Types of Risks
• Voluntary and Involuntary Risks
• Short term and Long Term Consequences
• Expected Portability
• Reversible Effects
• Threshold levels for Risk
• Delayed and Immediate Risk
 Risk Benefit Analysis And Reducing Risk

• Risk-benefit analysis is the comparison of the risk of a

situation to its related benefits.
• For research that involves more than minimal risk of
harm to the subjects, the investigator must assure that the
amount of benefit clearly outweighs the amount of risk.
• Only if there is favorable risk benefit ratio, a study may
be considered ethical.
• Informative risk-benefit analysis and effective risk
management are essential to the ultimate commercial
success of your product.
 Evaluations of future risk:
• Real future risk as disclosed by the fully matured future
circumstances when they develop.
• Statistical risk, as determined by currently available data, as
measured actuarially for insurance premiums.
• Projected risk, as analytically based on system models
structured from historical studies.
• Perceived risk, as intuitively seen by individuals.
Air transportation as an example:
• Flight insurance company - statistical risk.
• Passenger - perceived risk.
• Federal Aviation Administration(FAA) - projected risks.
 How to Reduce Risk?
1. Define the Problem
2. Generate Several Solutions
3. Analyse each solution to determine the pros and
cons of each
4. Test the solutions
5. Select the best solution
6. Implement the chosen solution
7. Analyse the risk in the chosen solution
8. Try to solve it or move to next solution.
 Case Study
• Chernobyl's Case Study
• Bhopal Gas disaster Case Study