Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Presented By:
Abhishek Dewangan
(M.Sc. Final Year)
Introduction
• This slide presentation includes the base topics of ground water geology
and the darcy’s law,
Global Water Cycle
Residence time:
Average travel
time for water
through a
subsystem of the
hydrologic cycle
Tr = S/Q
Storage/flowrate
Principal sources of
fresh water for
human activities
(44,800 km3/yr)
Hydrologic Cycle (Local view)
Atmospheric Moisture
Snow Rain
Evaporation
Interception
Throughfall and
y
Stem Flow
rg
e
Snowpack
En
Snowmelt
Watershed
Pervious Surface Impervious Boundary
Infiltration
Our focus Evapotranspiration
Soil Moisture
Percolation Overland
Groundwater Flow
Groundwater Flow
Evaporation
Streams and Lakes
Channel Flow
Runoff
Global Water Resources
Global Distribution of Water
Source Volume Percent
Ocean 97.2000
Glaciers and other ice 2.1500
Ground Water 0.6100
Lakes
fresh 0.0090
saline 0.0080
Soil Moisture 0.0050
Atmosphere 0.0010
Rivers 0.0001
Occurrence of Groundwater
7
Distribution of Water in Subsurface
Moisture Profile Soil Profile Description
• Different zones
– depend on % of pore
space filled with water
• Unsaturated Zone
– Water held by
capillary forces, water
content near field
capacity except during
infiltration
• Soil zone
– Water moves down
(up) during infiltration
(evaporation)
• Capillary fringe
– Saturated ar base
– Field capacity at top
• Saturated Zone
– Fully saturated pores
10
Porosity
Soil volume V
• Property of the voids of (Saturated) Pore
with
the porous medium water
• % of total volume
occupied by voids solid
Porosity
Soil volume V
Porosity: total volume of soil (Saturated) Pore
that can be filled with water with
water
solid
V = Total volume of element
Vi = Volume of Pores
Vs = Volume of solids
Poorly sorted
silty fine to
medium sand
Well sorted fine sand
Sand 49%
Clay 40%
Soil Characteristics
of Cyprus Soil
Sample
16
Distribution of Water in Subsurface
Moisture Profile Soil Profile Description
• Different zones
– depend on % of pore
space filled with water
• Unsaturated Zone
– Water held by
capillary forces, water
content near field
capacity except during
infiltration
• Soil zone
– Water moves down
(up) during infiltration
(evaporation)
• Capillary fringe
– Saturated ar base
– Field capacity at top
• Saturated Zone
– Fully saturated pores
Negative
pressure Solid Solid
Water
Positive r
pressure
Capillary Pressure
A
ir
Solid Solid
Wate
rr
Liquid rises due to attractive force of pore, until gravity force stops it.
Subsurface Pressure Distribution
z
Capillary pressure head Ground surface
Unsaturated zone
Capillary
Zone
• Specific retention
– Water retained against gravity (field capacity)
Porosity, Specific Yield, & Specific
Retention
Aquifer Types
• Aquifer
– Store & transmit water
– Unconsolidated deposits
sand and gravel,
sandstones etc.
• Aquiclude
– Store, don’t transmit
water
– Clays and less shale
– Impervious boundaries of
aquifers
• Aquitard
– Transmit don’t store
water
– Shales and less clay
– Leaky confining layers of
aquifers
• Confined aquifer • Unconfined aquifer
– Under pressure – Phreatic or water table
– Bounded by impervious – Bounded by a water table
layers
Aquifer Types
• Aquifer
• Confined aquifer – Store & transmit water
– Under pressure – Unconsolidated deposits
– Bounded by impervious layers sand and gravel,
sandstones etc.
• Unconfined aquifer • Aquitard
– Phreatic or water table – Transmit don’t store water
– Bounded by a water table – Shales and less clay
– Leaky confining layers of
aquifers
Aquifer Storage
• Fluid Compressibility ()
• Porous Medium Compressibility ()
• Specific Storage
– Volume of water released from a unit volume of aquifer due to a unit decline
in head
• Confined Aquifer
– Water produced by 2 mechanisms
1. Aquifer compaction due to increasing effective stress V g
2. Water expansion due to decreasing pressure
• Unconfined aquifer
– Water produced by draining pores Ss S y
Book
Storage Relations in Aquifers
Ss S y S s g ( n )
Pressure and Elevation Heads
• Piezometric head - energy per
unit weight of the fluid
Elevation
head
Pressure
head
Piezometric Head
• Piezometric head
• Unconfined aquifer
– piezometric head =
elevation
Pressure
head = 0
Two Confined Aquifers with Different Heads
34
Modern Theories
• Modern Theory
– Henri Darcy (1856): Relationship
for the flow through sand filters.
Resistance of flow through aquifers.
Solution for unsteady flow.
– Hazen, Slichter, O. E.
Meinzer(1900s): practical
applications, basing on theoretical
principles of French hydrogeology
– King (1899): Water table maps, Henri Darcy
groundwater flow, cross-section
– C.V. Theis(1930s): Well Hydraulics
– Hubbert(1940) “…penetrating
thought experiments recast the
theory of groundwater flow in
physically meaningful terms,
rescuing the field from a morass of
internal inconsistencies”
– C. E. Jacob (1940) Partial
differential equation of transient
groundwater flow
C.V. Theis
Ground Water Definitions
• Porosity: Volume percentage of rock that
consists of voids or openings. It is a
measure of the rock’s ability to hold water.
Water Table
Perched Water Tables
Ground Water
Movement Hydraulic head (h) = elevation + pressure
Hydraulic gradient =
difference in head/distance
h.g. = h/L
Losing stream:
water flows into
saturated zone
Water Table
Saturated
Zone
Impermeable bedrock
Groundwater flow
Impermeable bedrock
Groundwater Movement:
Where does your water come from?
How fast is it going?
Darcy’s Law
• Water flow through an aquifer.
• Darcy's law (conservation of momentum) was
determined experimentally by Darcy, it can be
derived from the Navier-Stokes equations
• Analogous to Fourier's law, Ohm's law, or Fick's
law
• Darcy's law (conservation of momentum) and the
continuity equation (conservation of mass) are
used to derive the groundwater flow equation
Properties
• Fluid
– Density () = mass per unit volume
– Specific weight (g) = weight per unit volume
– Specific gravity (SG=w) = ratio of fluid density to
that of water
– Viscosity () = resistance of fluid to yield to shear
when it is in motion
• Porous Medium
– Storage Properties (porosity, particle size, elasticity)
– Transmissive Properties (conductivity)
Darcy
http://biosystems.okstate.edu/Darcy/
/echo.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/
Darcy’s Experiment
hL
P1/
P2/
v
Q
A
Sand
,
z1
ea
Ar
column
Datum z2
plane
Q
Darcy’s Experiments
• Flow through sand filters
• Discharge (Q) proportional to
K= hydraulic conductivity [L/T]
– Area, A
– Head drop, h1-h2
– Inverse of length, L
h1 h2
QA
L
h h2 h1
Q h
q K
A L
Groundwater Velocity
• Specific discharge q
Q
A
– Darcy velocity
• Q= flow
• A = total cross-sectional area
through which flow occurs
q Q
• Average velocity v
A
Head Loss in Porous Media
• Piezometric head
• Energy equation
q= Specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter
• Darcy’s Law is valid for NR< 1
Hydraulic Conductivity
• A combined property of the medium and the fluid
• Ease with which fluid moves through the medium
g
K k
g
K k
k = intrinsic permeability
ρ = density
g = gravitational constant 2 3 2
d
µ = dynamic viscosity k cd 2
180(1 )
d = mean particle size
Kozeny – Carman eq.
= porosity
Lab Measurement of Conductivity
Permeameters
• Darcy’s Law is useless unless we can measure the
parameters
• Set up a flow pattern such that
– We can derive a solution
– We can produce the flow pattern experimentally
• Hydraulic Conductivity is measured in the lab with a
permeameter
– Steady or unsteady 1-D flow
– Small cylindrical sample of medium
Lab Measurement of Conductivity
Constant Head Permeameter
Outflow
Q
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
• Homogeneous aquifer
– Properties are the same at
every point
• Heterogeneous aquifer
– Properties are different at
every point
• Isotropic aquifer
– Properties are same in every
direction
• Anisotropic aquifer
– Properties are different in
different directions
• Often results from stratification
during sedimentation
K horizontal K vertical
www.usgs.gov
Layered Porous Media
(Flow Parallel to Layers)
b1 K1 Q1
b b2 K2 Q2 Q
b3 K3 Q3
Layered Porous Media
(Flow Perpendicular to Layers)
Q
W
b1 K1 h1
b b2 K2 h2
b3 K3 h3
Q
Units
• Hydraulic Conductivity
– K [L/T]
• m/s
• gal/(day-ft2)
• Permeability
– k [L2]
• m2
• ft2
• darcy
Boundary Conditions
dam
• Specified Head Boundary
reservoir
• No-flow boundary
Simple Flow Net Analysis
• Flow Line – a line such that the velocity vector is tangent to it
• Flow net – the set of Flow lines and Equipotentials intersect at right angles
• Flow lines terminate on Equipotentials (delineates boundaries of flow domain)
• Discharge of any Flowtube (area between two Flow lines) per unit width is
Flow net
Flow line
• So specific discharge is
Equipotential
Constructing Flow Nets
• nf = number of Flowtubes
• nd = number of Equipotential drops
• Q = flow for one Flowtube
• H = head loss for one Flowtube
• l = total length of flow tube
• b = Total width of flow
Simple Flow Net Analysis
Q Q
Flow Net Under a Dam
• Flow happens
– Head above dam > head below dam
• Bottom of reservoir
– Equipotential
– Flow is down
• Impervious boundary,
– Streamline dam
– No-flow
• Base of dam
– Streamline reservoir
– No flow
• Water surface below dam
– Equipotential Equipotential Flowline
– Constant head
Groundwater Flow Direction
• Water level
measurements from
three wells can be used
to determine
groundwater flow
direction
Contour Map of Groundwater Levels
• Contours of
groundwater level
(equipotential lines)
and Flowlines
(perpendicular to
equipotiential lines)
indicate areas of
recharge and discharge
Refraction of Streamlines
y
• Vertical component of
velocity must be the same q1 Upper Formation
on both sides of interface 1
K1
K2 2 x
• So
Darcy’s Law
h
• Darcy’s Law q K
L
1-D expression
• 1-D expression q
• When flow is not 1-D, q x vector with
q q y
3components
is a vector with q
z
3components
q Kh 3-D expression
Darcy’s Law
• Often we can align the
coordinate axes in the
principale directions of
layering
• Horizontal conductivity
often order of
magnitude larger than
vertical conductivity
Darcy’s
Law and Flow
Philip B. Bedient
Civil and Environmental Engineering
Rice University
Darcy allows an estimate of:
• the velocity or flow rate moving within the aquifer
• the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point located downstream
Darcy’s Law
V = – K (∆h/∆L)
and since
Q = VA (A = total area)
Q = – KA (dh/dL)
Hydraulic Conductivity
Av voids
A = total area
Darcy & Seepage Velocity
• Thus VS = V D / n
Equations of Groundwater Flow
Vx
Vx Vx
x
y
Mass In - Mass Out =Change in Storage
Vx Vy Vz 0
x y z
Derivation of 3-D GW Flow
Equation from Darcy’s Law
Replace Vx, Vy, and Vz with Darcy using Kx, Ky, and Kz
h h h
K x K y K z 0
x x y y z z
2h 2h 2h
2 2 0
x 2
y z
2 h 0 called Laplace Eqn.
Transient Saturated Flow
Vx Vy Vz n
x y z t
A change in h will produce change in and n, replaced
with specific storage Ss = g( + n). Note, is the compressibility of aquifer
and B is comp of water,
therefore,
h h h h
K x K y K z Ss
x x y y z z t
Solutions to GW Flow Eqns.
Solutions for only a few simple problems can be
obtained directly - generally need to apply numerical
methods to address complex boundary conditions.
2h 2h 2h
2 2 0
x 2
y z
2 h 0 called Laplace Eqn.
h0 h1
Transient Saturated Flow
Simplifying by assuming K = constant in all dimensions
And assuming that S = Ssb, and that T = Kb yields
2 h 2 h 2 h Ss h
2 2
x 2
y z K t
S h
h
2
from Jacob, Theis
T t
Steady State Flow to Well
Simplifying by assuming K = constant in all dimensions
and assuming that Transmissivity T = Kb and
Q = flow rate to well at point (x,y) yields
h h
2 2
Qx, y
2
x 2
y T
Example of Darcy’s Law
30 ft
Example 2
• Consider a 1-ft length of river (and channel).
Q = KA [(h1 – h2) / L]
• Where:
A = (30 x 1) = 30 ft2 K
= (0.25 ft/hr) (24 hr/day) = 6 ft/day
• Therefore,
Q = [6 (30) (120 – 110)] / 2000
= 0.9 ft3/day/ft length = 0.9 ft2/day
Permeameters