Module-II

Fluid mechanics
Fluid and Non-Fluids

• There are two states of matter fluids and non-fluids.

• Fluid state refers liquid, vapour and gas phase and Non-Fluids
mean the solid phase of matter.
• The effect of shear force distinguishes fluids from solids: A fluid is
a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to shear
force, however small the shear may be.
• The tendency of continuous deformation of a substance is called
fluidity and the act of continuous deformation is called flow, but
solids have a tendency to resist deformation, within elastic limit it
can regain its original shape.
Classification of Fluids

• Fluids may exist as liquids, gas or vapour.

• Liquids are characterized by the presence of a surface, that is the
molecules in a liquid have a much greater freedom to move and
assume the shape of a container.
• Gases and vapours on the other hand expand and adjust their
shape and size to fill the space completely.
• The term vapour is used for a gas when it is at a temperature
below the critical temperature of the substance.
 Continuum
• Continuous presence of matter is called
continuum in simple words.
• Practically atmosphere consists of molecules of
matter. To study the fluid static and dynamic
behavior, system is called as continuum. This
phenomenon is given based on the two physics.

• The mean free path of molecule and

characteristic length of the flow. If mean free
path is smaller than characteristic length the
system is call continuum.
• If the characteristic length is more then the continuum
is studied based on the factor called elapsed time
between collisions. This time must be sufficiently small
so that the random statistical nature of the molecular
activity is preserved.
Continuum (conntd..,)

• The governing non-dimensional number for predicting of continuum

is knudsen number.

• Knudsen Number is approaching zero or less than 0.3 for use of

most of the relations or governing equations.
• The validation of continuum is up to 90km from the earth surface i.e.,
up to that Knudsen number is below 0.3.
• Above 90km other theory will be followed such as kinetic theory of
molecules and so on.
System and fluid particles.

• A system is designed as demarcated are of interest. An

infinitesimal lump of fluid is called a fluid element.
• A fluid particle is assumed to have very small but non zero
dimensions: its volume is taken as δV, mass δm and density ρ such
that ρ = δm/ δV.
• An element or a particle should not be confused with atoms and
molecules. The concept of an element or a particle in a continuous
fluid flow refers to an entity of small dimensions used for
differential studies disregarding the atomic and molecular nature
of matter.
Control Volume

• A volume of interest in a space demarcated by surface. it can be

infinitesimally small or as large as desired.
• An infinitesimal control volume is called a differential control
volume and it is said to have very small but non zero dimensions .
• Its volume is denoted as δV and control surface δS. The shape of
the differential control volume may be chosen as a parallelopiped
for the rectangular coordinates and a segment of hollow cylinder
for the cylindrical coordinates.
 Properties of Fluid
• The various properties of fluid are density, pressure, viscosity,
compressibility, surface tension, capillarity, vapour pressure etc.
• Density: - It is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume.
For a fluid continuum, density must be a continuous function of
space. (ρ = Mass / Volume)
• Specific weight: - The weight of a substance per unit volume.
(Specific weight = ρ g)
• Specific gravity: - specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of its density
of the liquid to that of density of water.
• Compressibility: - is a measure of the relative volume change of a
fluid as a response to a pressure change or the inverse of
compressibility β is defined as volumetric strain per unit
compressive stress, i.e., the inverse of bulk modulus.
• Capillarity: - It is the ability of a liquid to flow against gravity where
liquid spontaneously rises in a narrow space such as a thin tube, or
in porous materials such as paper etc. Liquid rise or drop in a
capillary tube depends on the angle of contact between the liquid
and the capillary material. Acute angle corresponds with capillary
rise and obtuse angle corresponds capillary depression.

• Height of the liquid column is given by, h = (4 σ cosθ)/(ρgd),

• Where σ is the surface tension force per unit length, θ is the angle
of contact between the liquid and the tube material, ρ is the
density of the liquid, g is the local gravitational field strength, d is
the diameter of the tube length.
• Vapour Pressure: - Pressure exerted by the vapour formed at the
free surface of a liquid is called vapour pressure. Vapour pressure
of a liquid increases with its temperature due to increased
molecular activity.
• free surface is the surface of liquid that is subject to zero shear stess,
boundary between two homogenous fluids, ex: water surface on
earth’s atmosphere.
• The phenomenon of vaporization is due to the surface molecules
escaping the liquid by overcoming the molecular attractive forces
by virtue of their translational momentum.
• Vaporization occurs when, Vapor pressure < Pressure above a liquid
surface at that temperature.
 Newton’s law of viscosity
• The shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to
the rate of strain, where the constant of proportionality is called
coefficient of viscosity.
• Consider a fluid contained between two parallel plates at a distance
H, if the lower plate is held stationary and the upper plate is moved
at constant velocity V, the fluid will be subjected to shearing forces
and the velocity will vary across the gap. The velocity profile is
shown below.
• The rate of strain at that point is given as ε = du/dy.
• According to Newton’s law of viscosity τ α ε, thus τ α du/dy.
• Which becomes τ = μ du/dy.
• Where μ is called as coefficient of viscosity.
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of the
resistance of a fluid which is
being deformed by either shear
stress or tensile stress.
• Viscosity is mainly due to
cohesion and molecular
momentum transfer. Also
viscosity reduces with increase in
temperature.
• The viscosity μ is frequently
referred as absolute or dynamic
viscosity and the ratio of the
dynamic viscosity to the fluid
density is known as kinematic
viscosity (ν = μ/ρ)
Classification of Fluids
 Classification of fluids and regimes of flow
• Based on density, fluids can be classified as: -

1) Ideal Fluid.(Density – constant)

2) Incompressible Fluid. (Density – constant)
3) In-viscid Fluid. (Density – constant/variable)
4) Real Fluid. (Density – variable)
5) Newtonian Fluid. (Density – constant/ variable)
6) Non-Newtonian Fluid. (Density – constant/ variable)
7) Compressible Fluid. (Density – variable)
8) Perfect Gas. (Density – p = ρRT/variable)
 Classification of fluids and regimes of flow
• Classification of flows based on mach number: -

1) Incompressible Flow. (M < 0.3)

2) Compressible Flow. (M > 0.3)
3) Subsonic Flow. (M < 0.8)
4) Transonic Flow. (0.8 < M < 1.2)
5) Supersonic Flow. (1.2 < M < 5)
6) Hypersonic Flow. (M > 5)
Fluid Statics
 Pascal’s Law
• Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all
directions.
Px = P y = Pz = P n
• Pascal’s law is valid for
1) for a fluid a rest, whether the fluid is viscous
or inviscid, compressible or incompressible.
2) for a liquid in a solid body movement, either
at constant linear acceleration or at a constant
rotational velocity in a container.
3) for the flow of an inviscid fluid and for ideal
fluid flow where μ=0 corresponds to the absence
of shear forces.
 Hydrostatic Law
• The rate of increase of pressure in the vertically
downward direction, at a point in a static fluid,
must be equal to the local specific weight of the
fluid.

• Which is given as
dp/dz = ρg
• This law is valid for compressible or in
compressible fluids as long as the local density
is taken into account.
• This law is valid for viscous or inviscid fluids as
the fluid is considered at rest and shearing
effect does not come into play.
 Hydrostatic Law
• Case 1: -
For incompressible fluids the equation is given as
p = ρgh,
where h is the difference in the datum level of two points (1, at the free
surface and 2, anywhere in the fluid ).

• Case 2: -
For compressible fluids the equation is given as
dp/p = (dz/t) (g/R)
This equation is known as aerostatic law.
 Concept of Virtually supported weight
• The vertical component of force acting on a surface is due to the
weight of the liquid actually or virtually supported by the surface,
which is the weight of the volume of the liquid actually(or
virtually) contained between the surface and free level.
• Consider a container with base AB filled with liquid up to height
h. The weight of the liquid actually supported by the base may be
weight actually contained in the container but the weight virtually
supported would be the weight as if the liquid were filled up to a
height h
as shown in dotted lines.
• The total hydrostatic force on the base AB is more
than the weight of the fluid actually contained in the
container, but it equals the force as if the total base
is supporting a liquid of height h.
 Hydrostatic paradox
• Consider vessels of different shapes and sizes as shown in the
image.

• All the vessels have same base area and filled with water up to the
same height. We can clearly see that different jars have different
volumes and hold varying weights of water in them.
 Hydrostatic paradox
• The force exerted on the base of in each container is the same
irrespective of the shape of the vessel, volume or weight of the
fluid contained in it.

• This is known as the hydrostatic paradox.

• This is because, the pressure at any point on the base is the same in
all cases, P = ρ g h and the pressure only depends upon the head of
the continuous fluid column in the container apart from density
and gravitational acceleration.
 Buoyancy
• When a body is submerged in a fluid, wholly or partially, the body
experiences an upward force due to the fluid surrounding it. This
phenomenon of upward exerting on the body is called buoyancy
and the force is called buoyant force.
• The extent of force of buoyancy experienced by a body may be
estimated using the hydrostatic principle or using the Archimedes
principle.

• Buoyant force, FB = ρ g V
 Practical examples of Buoyancy
• Submarines. • Ships

• Airships
 Metacentre
• When a floating body is tilted by an
external couple, through a small angle, the
point of intersection BC and a vertical
through the new centre of buoyancy /b is
called metacentre.
• A floating body can be in three states of
equilibrium: stable, unstable and neutral.
• The distance CM measured form C to M is
called the metacentric height.
• For a stability of a body, its metacentric
height should be positive and larger the
metacentric height, more stable is the Case A Case B Case C
body.
Fluid Kinematics
 Types of Fluid Flow
• Laminar Flow – flow persists as unidirectional movement
– Molecules flow parallel

– Movement up and down by diffusion

• Turbulent Flow – highly distorted flow

– Large scale flow perpendicular to direction of flow

– Transfer of movement up and down by macro scale processes

• Turbulence = irregular and random component of fluid motion

• Eddies = highly turbulent water masses

Eulerian & Lagrangian Approach
Eulerian & Lagrangian Approach
“For your Culture”: In solid mechanics, we often use Lagrangian methods. We don’t
need to follow “every particle”, but just some small volumes.

When displacements get large (e.g. in fluid flow), the deforming grid gets
problematic. But we sometimes use mixed approaches, e.g. Lagrangian tracers in a
Eulerian frame.
Eulerian & Lagrangian Approach

Conservation laws naturally apply in the Lagrangian frame: A conserved quantity

such as total energy E remains constant in a given material volume.

An Eulerian observer sees different material volumes flow past, each of them
possibly with different E.
 Flow inside a pipe:
Laminar Turbulent

Turbulent flow is nearly constant across the cross-section of pipe.

Flow in a pipe becomes turbulent either because of high velocity, because of large
pipe diameter, or because of low viscosity.
Revolution, Rotation and Vorticity

Rotation of a fluid element in a rotating

tank of fluid (solid body rotation).
BOUNDARY LAYER
• The boundary layer is the thin region of flow
adjacent to a surface, where the flow is retarded by
the influence of friction between solid surface and
the fluid.

• The boundary layer occupies geometrically only

small portion of the flow field, its influence on the
drag and heat transfer to the body is immense
 Boundary Layer Thickness

The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance across

a boundary layer from the wall to a point where the flow
velocity has essentially reached the 'free stream' velocity.
 PROPERTIES
• At Surface, the flow velocity is zero. Its called No-Slip
condition. Above the surface the velocity increases in the
y- direction.
• The velocity and temperature of the fluid at the surface is
equal to the velocity and temperature of the surface.
• The relative thickness (Velocity boundary layer thickness
and Temperature boundary layer thickness) is depending
upon the Prandtl number.
• The velocity gradient at the wall generates shear stress at
the wall and the temperature gradient generates heat
transfer at the wall
 DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS
The displacement thickness, δ* is the distance by
which a surface would have to be moved perpendicular
to itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid fluid
stream of velocity to give the same flow rate as occurs
between the surface and the reference plane in a real
fluid.
The displacement thickness depends on the
Reynolds number which is the ratio of inertial (resistant
to change or motion) forces to viscous (heavy and
gluey) forces.
 Momentum Thickness

The momentum thickness, θ or δ2, is the distance

by which a surface would have to be moved parallel
to itself towards the reference plane in an inviscid
fluid stream of velocity u0 to give the same total
momentum as exists between the surface and the
reference plane in a real fluid.
Boundary Layer classified into

Depend upon the Reynolds Number

Laminar Boundary Layer

 Turbulent Boundary layer .

 Laminar Boundary layer
For the lower Reynolds Numbers, the flow is Laminar
and the stream wise velocity changes uniformly as one
move away from the wall
In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth layers or
lamina. There is relatively little mixing and
consequently the velocity gradients are small and
shear stresses are low.
 The thickness of the laminar boundary layer
increases with distance from the start of the boundary
layer and decreases with Reynolds number.
 Turbulent Boundary layer
For higher Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is
turbulent and the stream wise velocity is characterized
by unsteady (changing with time) swirling flows inside
the boundary layer.
Turbulent boundary layer flow is characterized by
unsteady mixing due to eddy at many scales. The result
is higher shear stress at the wall.
The wall shear stress is higher because the velocity
gradient near the wall is greater. This is because of the
more effective mixing associated with turbulent flow.
However, the lower velocity fluid is also transported
outward with the result that the distance to the edge of
the layer is larger.
 BOUNDARY LAYER OVER AN AIRFOIL
• A laminar boundary layer begins to develop at nose of
the airfoil.
• After certain distance x (critical) along the contour of
the body, the laminar – turbulent transition occurs, so
that the boundary layer is turbulent for x > x (critical).
• Because of the geometry of the body, the in viscid
outer flow gives rise to pressure distribution on the
outer edge of the boundary layer.
• This pressure distribution is also identical to the
pressure distribution at the wall.
• If any changes in between these pressure
distributions resulting pressure gradient
perpendicular to the main flow direction.
• At high Reynolds numbers, Boundary layers are
very thin compared to the body’s contour.
• If pressure increases in the flow direction, as can
occur in the region towards the back of the airfoil,
or on the back of the blunt bodies, it is possible that
the boundary layer can separate from the wall.
Adverse pressure gradient

• While air flows over a body, as the flow gets

separated the potential energy of the air increases
suddenly and kinetic energy decreases.
• This in turn reduces the velocity of the air in the
inner part of the boundary layer(As it is affected by
the adverse pressure gradient).
• For large enough pressure increases, this fluid may
also to zero velocity or even become reversed.
• When flow reversal occurs, the flow is separated
from the surface.
 BOUNDARY LAYER separation OVER AN
AIRFOIL

a) Attached Flow
b) Separated Flow
• Boundary layer separation can even play a role
when the angle of attack on an airfoil is moderate, if
the flow close to speed of sound is considered.
• At small angle of attack ( up to about 10 deg), the
flow moves along the both sides without separation.
Flow is called attached flow.
• As the angle of attack increased , the danger of
separation occur on the suction side. Because
pressure increase is greater here.
• AT 15 deg , separation occurs. Its quiet close to the
nose of an airfoil. The separated flow has a large
area of “dead water’. Drag is very high.
• The start of separation coincides approximately with
the maximum lift of the airfoil.
Boundary layer separation over a motor vehicle

• If the front of the van is square , the flow past the

sharp front edge produces strong negative pressures,
Therefore strong increase in pressure along the side
walls.
• This leads to a complete separation of the boundary
layer along the whole side wall.
• Therefore large dead water area behind the body.
• For the rounded front, the negative pressure at the
front edge are avoided and a flow attached to the
entire wall is achieved
 Prevent the separation of boundary layer
• It is physically easiest to move the wall in the flow direction and thus
to remove the velocity difference between wall and outer flow, the
origin of boundary layer formation.
• Another method is suction. The slowed boundary layer material is
sucked into inside of the body through narrow slits on the wall.
• If the suction is strong enough, the boundary layer can be prevented.
• Separation can also be prevented by blowing tangentially into the
boundary layer.
• E.g. : Slats can be used on airfoil. Positive pressure gradients are
avoided.
• Putting flap on the and of the wing and tilting it before
separation occurs increases the velocity over the top of the
wing, again reducing the pressure and chance of separation
occurring.

Thank you