DISTINGUISHED ELEMENTS

DUALITY
3 DISTINGUISHED ELEMENTS. DUALITY

In each of the following definitions, we assume that A is a partially ordered class.

4.18 Definition An element m ∈ A is called a maximal element of A if none of the elements of A are
strictly greater than m; in symbols, this can be expressed as follows:

Similarly, an element n ∈ A is called a minimal element of A if none of the elements of A are strictly less
than n; in symbols,

Definition An element a ∈ A is called the greatest element of A if a≥ x for every x ∈ A. An element b

∈ A is called the least element of A if b≤ x for every x ∈ A.
It is easy to see that if A has a greatest element, then this element is unique; for suppose a and a′ are
both greatest elements of A.Then a a′ and a′ a; hence a = a′. Analogously, the least element of A is
unique.

20.Definition Let B be a subsets of A. An upper bound of B in A is an element a ∈ A such that a ≥x for

every x ∈ B.A lower bound of B in A is an element b ∈ A such that b ≤x for every x ∈ B. When there is
no risk of ambiguity, we will refer to an upper bound of B in A simply as an “upper bound of B,” and to
a lower bound of B in A simply as a “lower bound of B.” The class of all the upper bounds of B will be
denoted by υ(B) and the class of all the lower bounds of B will be denoted by λ(B).

21.Definition If the class of lower bounds of B in A has a greatest element, then this element is called
the greatest lower bound of B in A. If the class of upper bounds of B in A has a least element, then this
element is called the least upper bound of B in A. The least upper bound of B in A is also called the
supremum of B in A (abbreviated supA B), and the greatest lower bound of B in A is also called the
infinum of B in A (abbreviated infA B). When there is no risk of ambiguity, we will write sup B for
supA B, and inf B for infA B.
We have seen that the greatest element and the least element of any class are unique; hence the sup
and the inf, if they exist, are unique.

Examples
22. Figure 6 is the line diagram of a class that has maximal elements but no greatest element (a and
d
23. In Fig. 7, let A ={a, b, c, d, e, f } and let B ={b, c, e, f }. B has two upper bounds in A, namely a
and d, but no sup.
24. In Fig. 7, let A and B be defined as above, and let C ={a, b, c, e, f } and D ={d, b, c, e, f }. Then B
has no sup in A, although supC B= a and supD B= d.

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

4.25 The class N of all the positive integers has a least element but no greatest element and no maximal
elements. The class of all the integers has neither a greatest nor a least element.
 The following are a few properties of the distinguished elements in a partially ordered class.

28.Theorem If A has a greatest element a, and B has a greatest element b, and A ⊆ B, then a

b. Proof. By definition, b x for every x ∈ B;but a ∈ A ⊆ B; hence b a.

Dual If A has a least element a, and B has a least element b, and A ⊆ B, then a b.

29.Theorem Let B and C be subclasses of A. If B ⊆ C, then v(C) ⊆ v(B).

Proof. x ∈ v(C) ⇒ x y, ∀y ∈ C ⇒ x y, ∀y ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ v(B).

Dual If B ⊆ C, then λ(C) ⊆ λ(B).

30. Theorem Let B and C be subclasses of A, and suppose that B and C

each has a sup in A. If B ⊆ C
the sup B sup C.

Proof. By 4.29, v(C) ⊆ v(B); hence by 4.28 (dual), sup B sup C.

Dual If B and C each has a inf in A, and if B ⊆ C, then inf B inf C.

31. Theorem Let B be a subclass of A. Then B ⊆ v(λ(B)).

Proof. Suppose x ∈ B; for each y ∈ λ(B), y x, that is, x y; hence x ∈

v(λ(B)).
32.Lemma Let B be a subclass of A and suppose that λ(B) has a sup in A. Then B has an inf in A, and inf
B = sup λ(B).

Proof. Let a = sup λ(B). Suppose b ∈ B; for every c ∈ λ(B), c b; hence b is an upper bound of λ(B);
thus a b. This is true for each b ∈ B, so we conclude that a is a lower bound of B. Now if d is any
lower bound of B, then d ∈ λ(B),so a d because a is an upper bound of λ(B). We have proved that a is
the greatest lower bound of B.

Dual If v(B) has an inf in A, then B has a sup in A and sup B = inf v(B).

33.Definition Let A be a partially ordered class. If every nonempty subclass of A that is bounded above
has a sup, then A is said to be conditionally complete.
We have the following alternative definition of conditionally complete: A is called conditionally
complete if every nonempty subclass of A that is bounded below has an inf. Our next theorem
establishes the equivalence of the two definitions.

34. Theorem The following two conditions are equivalent:

i) Every nonempty subclass of A that is bounded above has a sup.
ii) Every nonempty subclass of A that is bounded below has an inf.

Proof
a) Suppose that (i) holds; let B be a nonempty subclass of A which is bounded below, that is, λ(B) ≠ Ø.
Each element of B is an upper bound of λ(B), hence λ(B) is bounded above; thus λ(B) has a sup. But,
by 4.32, it follows that B has an inf.
b) The converse is the dual of the result we have just proven.

EXERCISES 4.3

1. Suppose B ⊆ A; prove that if B has a greatest element b, then b = sup B.

2. Suppose B ⊆ A; prove that v(B) = v(λ(v(B))).[Hint: Use 4.29 and 4.31.]
3. Suppose B ⊆ A and C ⊆ A; prove that λ(B ∪ C) = λ(B) ∩ λ(C).
4. Suppose B ⊆ A; prove that if B has a sup b, then λ(v(B)) ∩ v(B) ={b}.
5. Suppose C ⊆ B and B ⊆ A; prove that supA C sup B C.
6. Let B and C be subclasses of a partially ordered class A. Prove that if sup B = sup C, then v(B) =
v(C).
7. Let A and B be partially ordered classes and let f : A → B be a strictly increasing function. Prove
that if b is a maximal element of B, then each element of is a maximal element of A.
8. Let A and B be partially ordered classes, and let f : A → B be an increasing function. Prove that if a
is the greatest element of A, then f(a) is the greatest element of .
9. Let A and B be partially ordered classes, and let f : A → B be an increasing function; suppose C ⊆
A. Prove that if c is an upper bound of C, then f(c) is an upper bound of .
10. Let A and B be partially ordered classes, and let f : A → B be an isomorphism. Prove each of the
 following:
a) a is a maximal element of A iff f(a) is a maximal element of B.
b) a is the greatest element of A iff f(a) is the greatest element of B.
c)Suppose C ⊆ A; x is an upper bound of C iff f(x) is an upper bound of
. d)b = sup C iff f(b) = sup .
11. Let A be a partially ordered class. Prove the following:
a) If every subclass of A has a sup and an inf, in A, then A has a least element and a greatest
element. [Hint: Use 4.27.]
b) The following two statements are equivalent: Every subclass of A has a sup; every subclass of A
has an inf.
12. Let A and B be partially ordered classes. Prove the following:
a) Suppose A × B is ordered lexicographically: if (a, b) is a maximal element of A × B, then a is a
maximal element of A.
b) Suppose A × B is ordered antilexicographically. If (a, b) is a maximal element of A × B, then b
is a maximal element of B.

in other words, if c is an upper bound of a and b, then a ∨ b c because a ∨ b is the least upper bound
of a and b.
For analogous reasons, we have

38. a ∧ b a and a ∧ b b

39. c a and c b ⇒ c a ∧ b;

4.40 Theorem Let A be a lattice; the join and the meet have the following properties: