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Chapter 1
Chemistry:
Methods and Measurement

Denniston
Topping
Caret
6th Edition
 1.1 The Discovery Process
• Chemistry - The study of matter…
– Matter - Anything that has mass and
occupies space
• A table
• A piece paper
– What about air?
• Yes, it is matter
1.1 The Discovery Process
Chemistry:
• the study of matter
• its chemical and physical properties
• the chemical and physical changes it
undergoes
• the energy changes that accompany
those processes
• Energy - the ability to do work to
accomplish some change
1.1 The Discovery Process
MAJOR AREAS OF CHEMISTRY

• Biochemistry - the study of life at the

molecular level
• Organic chemistry - the study of matter
containing carbon and hydrogen
• Inorganic chemistry - the study of matter
containing elements, not organic
• Analytic chemistry - analyze matter to
determine identity and composition
1.1 The Discovery Process
• Physical chemistry - attempts to
explain the way matter behaves

public health pharmaceutical industry

CHEMISTRY
food science
medical practitioners
forensic sciences
1.1 The Discovery Process THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• The scientific method - a systematic
approach to the discovery of new
information
Characteristics of the scientific process
 Observation
 Formulation of a question
 Pattern recognition
 Developing theories
 Experimentation
 Summarizing information
1.1 The Discovery Process
1.1 The Discovery Process
Models in Chemistry
• To aid in understanding of a
chemical unit or system
– a model is often used
– good models are based on
everyday experience
• Ball and stick methane model
– color code balls
– sticks show attractive forces
holding atoms together
 1.2 Matter and Properties
• Properties - characteristics of matter
– chemical vs. physical
• Three states of matter
1.gas - particles widely separated, no definite
shape or volume solid
2. liquid - particles closer together, definite
volume but no definite shape
3. solid - particles are very close together,
define shape and definite volume
 Three States of Water

(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas

1.2 Matter and Properties Comparison of the Three
Physical States
1.2 Matter and Properties • Physical property - is observed
without changing the composition or
identity of a substance
• Physical change - produces a
recognizable difference in the
appearance of a substance without
causing any change in its composition
or identity
- conversion from one physical state to
another
- melting an ice cube
Separation by Physical Properties

Magnetic iron is separated from other nonmagnetic

substances, such as sand. This property is used as
a large-scale process in the recycling industry.
1.2 Matter and Properties
• Chemical property - result in a
change in composition and can be
observed only through a chemical
reaction
• Chemical reaction (chemical
change) - a process of rearranging,
removing, replacing, or adding atoms
to produce new substances
hydrogen + oxygen  water

reactants products
1.2 Matter and Properties Classify the following as either a
chemical or physical property:
a. Color
b. Flammability
c. Hardness
d. Odor
e. Taste
1.2 Matter and Properties Classify the following as either a
chemical or physical change:

a. Boiling water becomes steam

b. Butter turns rancid

c. Burning of wood

d. Mountain snow pack melting in

spring

e. Decay of leaves in winter

1.2 Matter and Properties
• Intensive properties - a property of
matter that is independent of the
quantity of the substance
- Density
- Specific gravity

• Extensive properties - a property of

matter that depends on the quantity of
the substance
- Mass
- Volume
1.2 Matter and Properties Classification of Matter

• Pure substance - a substance that has only one

component
• Mixture - a combination of two or more pure
substances in which each substance retains its
own identity, not undergoing a chemical reaction
1.2 Matter and Properties Classification of Matter

• Element - a pure substance that cannot be

changed into a simpler form of matter by any
chemical reaction
• Compound - a substance resulting from the
combination of two or more elements in a
definite, reproducible way, in a fixed ratio
1.2 Matter and Properties Classification of Matter

• Mixture - a combination of two or more pure

substances in which each substance retains its own
identity
• Homogeneous - uniform composition, particles well
mixed, thoroughly intermingled
• Heterogeneous – nonuniform composition, random
placement
1.2 Matter and Properties
Classes of Matter
 1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation
• Information-bearing digits or figures in a
number are significant figures
• The measuring devise used determines the
number of significant figures a
measurement has
• The amount of uncertainty associated with a
measurement is indicated by the number of
digits or figures used to represent the
information
1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation

Significant figures - all digits in a number

representing data or results that are known
with certainty plus one uncertain digit
1.3 Significant Figures and Recognition of Significant
Scientific Notation Figures
• All nonzero digits are significant
• 7.314 has four significant digits
• The number of significant digits is independent of the
position of the decimal point
• 73.14 also has four significant digits
• Zeros located between nonzero digits are significant
• 60.052 has five significant digits
1.3 Significant Figures and Use of Zeros in Significant
Scientific Notation Figures
• Zeros at the end of a number (trailing zeros) are
significant if the number contains a decimal point.
• 4.70 has three significant digits

• Trailing zeros are insignificant if the number does not

contain a decimal point.
• 100 has one significant digit; 100. has three

• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero integer are not

significant.
• 0.0032 has two significant digits
1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation
How many significant figures are in
the following?

1. 3.400

2. 3004

3. 300.

4. 0.003040
1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation Scientific Notation
• Used to express very large or very small
numbers easily and with the correct number of
significant figures
• Represents a number as a power of ten
• Example:
4,300 = 4.3 x 1,000 = 4.3 x 103
1.3 Significant Figures and
• To convert a number greater than 1 to
scientific notation, the original decimal point
Scientific Notation
is moved x places to the left, and the resulting
number is multiplied by 10x
• The exponent x is a positive number equal to
the number of places the decimal point moved

5340 = 5.34 x 104

• What if you want to show the above number
has four significant figures?

= 5.340 x 104
1.3 Significant Figures and
• To convert a number less than 1 to scientific
notation, the original decimal point is moved x
Scientific Notation
places to the right, and the resulting number is
multiplied by 10-x
• The exponent x is a negative number equal to
the number of places the decimal point moved

0.0534 = 5.34 x 10-2

 Types of Uncertainty
1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation
• Error - the difference
between the true value
and our estimation
– Random
– Systematic
• Accuracy - the degree
of agreement between the
true value and the
measured value
• Precision - a measure of
the agreement of replicate
measurements
1.3 Significant Figures and Significant Figures in Calculation of
Results
Rules for Addition and Subtraction
Scientific Notation
• The result in a calculation cannot have greater
significance than any of the quantities that produced
the result
• Consider:
37.68 liters
6.71862 liters
108.428 liters
152.82662 liters

correct answer 152.83 liters

1.3 Significant Figures and
Rules for Multiplication and Division
Scientific Notation
• The answer can be no more precise than the least precise
number from which the answer is derived
• The least precise number is the one with the fewest significant
figures

4.2 × 103 (15.94) −8

−4
= 2 .9688692 × 10 (on calculator)
2.255 ×10
Which number has the fewest
significant figures? 4.2 x 103 has only 2
The answer is therefore, 3.0 x 10-8
1.3 Significant Figures and
Scientific Notation Exact and Inexact Numbers
• Inexact numbers have uncertainty by definition
• Exact numbers are a consequence of counting
• A set of counted items (beakers on a shelf) has
no uncertainty
• Exact numbers by definition have an infinite
number of significant figures
 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
1.3 Significant Figures and

• When the number to be dropped is less

Scientific Notation
than 5 the preceding number is not
changed
• When the number to be dropped is 5 or
larger, the preceding number is increased
by one unit
• Round the following number to 3
significant figures: 3.34966 x 104
=3.35 x 104
1.3 Significant Figures and
How Many Significant Figures?
Scientific Notation

Round off each number to 3 significant

figures:

1. 61.40

2. 6.171

3. 0.066494
 1.4 Units and Unit Conversion
Data, Results, and Units
• Data - each piece is an individual result of a single
measurement or observation
– mass of a sample
– temperature of a solution
• Results - the outcome of the experiment
• Data and results may be identical, however usually
related data are combined to generate a result
• Units - the basic quantity of mass, volume or
whatever quantity is being measured
– A measurement is useless without its units
 English and Metric Units
1.4 Units and Unit

• English system - a collection of

functionally unrelated units
Conversion

– Difficult to convert from one unit to another

– 1 foot = 12 inches = 0.33 yard = 1/5280 miles
• Metric System - composed of a set of units
that are related to each other decimally,
systematic
– Units relate by powers of tens
– 1 meter = 10 decimeters = 100 centimeters =
1000 millimeters
 Basic Units of the Metric System
1.4 Units and Unit

Mass gram g
Length meter m
Conversion

Volume liter L

• Basic units are the units of a quantity

without any metric prefix
1.4 Units and Unit
Conversion
 UNIT CONVERSION
1.4 Units and Unit

• You must be able to convert between

Conversion

units
- within the metric system
- between the English system and metric system

• The method used for conversion is called

the Factor-Label Method or Dimensional
Analysis

!!!!!!!!!!! VERY IMPORTANT !!!!!!!!!!!

 • Let your units do the work for you by
1.4 Units and Unit

simply memorizing connections

between units.
Conversion

– For example: How many donuts are in

one dozen?
– We say: “Twelve donuts are in a dozen.”
– Or: 12 donuts = 1 dozen donuts
• What does any number divided by
itself equal?
12 donuts
• ONE! =1
1 dozen
 12 donuts
=1
1 dozen
1.4 Units and Unit
Conversion

• This fraction is called a unit factor

• What does any number times one equal?

• That number
• Multiplication by a unit factor does not change the amount – only the
unit
 • We use these two mathematical facts to
use the factor label method
1.4 Units and Unit

– a number divided by itself = 1

Conversion

– any number times one gives that number

back
• Example: How many donuts are in 3.5
dozen?
• You can probably do this in your head
but try it using the Factor-Label
Method.
 Start with the given information...
1.4 Units and Unit

12 donuts
3.5 dozen × = 42 donuts
Conversion

1 dozen

Then set up your unit factor...

See that the units cancel...

Then multiply and divide all numbers...
 Common English System Units
1.4 Units and Unit
Conversion

• Convert 12 gallons to units of quarts

 Intersystem Conversion Units
1.4 Units and Unit
Conversion

• Convert 4.00 ounces to kilograms

1.4 Units and Unit
Conversion

1. Convert 5.5 inches to millimeters

2. Convert 50.0 milliliters to pints

3. Convert 1.8 in2 to cm2

 1.5 Experimental Quantities

• Mass - the quantity of matter in an object

– not synonymous with weight
– standard unit is the gram
• Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity

• Mass must be measured on a balance (not a

scale)
1.5 Experimental Quantities
• Units should be chosen to suit the
quantity described
– A dump truck is measured in tons
– A person is measured in kg or pounds
– A paperclip is measured in g or ounces
– An atom?
• For atoms, we use the atomic mass unit
(amu)
– 1 amu = 1.661 x 10-24 g
1.5 Experimental Quantities
• Length - the distance between two points
– standard unit is the meter
– long distances are measured in km
– distances between atoms are measured in nm,
1 nm = 10-9 m
• Volume - the space occupied by an object
– standard unit is the liter
– the liter is the volume occupied by 1000
grams of water at 4 oC
– 1 mL = 1/1000 L = 1 cm3
1.5 Experimental Quantities

The milliliter
(mL) and the
cubic centimeter
(cm3) are
equivalent
1.5 Experimental Quantities • Time
- metric unit is the second

• Temperature - the degree of “hotness”

of an object
1.5 Experimental Quantities Conversions Between Fahrenheit
and Celsius
o
F - 32
o
C=
1.8

o
F = 1.8 ×( C) + 32
o

1. Convert 75oC to oF
2. Convert -10oF to oC
1. Ans. 167 oF 2. Ans. -23oC
1.5 Experimental Quantities
Kelvin Temperature Scale
• The Kelvin scale is another temperature
scale.
• It is of particular importance because it is
directly related to molecular motion.
• As molecular speed increases, the Kelvin
temperature proportionately increases.
K = oC + 273
1.5 Experimental Quantities
Energy
• Energy - the ability to do work
• kinetic energy - the energy of motion
• potential energy - the energy of position
(stored energy)
• Energy is also categorized by form:
• light
• heat
• electrical
• mechanical
• chemical
1.5 Experimental Quantities Characteristics of Energy
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed
• Energy may be converted from one form to
another
• Energy conversion always occurs with less
than 100% efficiency
• All chemical reactions involve either a
“gain” or “loss” of energy
1.5 Experimental Quantities Units of Energy
• Basic Units:
• calorie or joule
• 1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)

• A kilocalorie (kcal) also known as the

large Calorie. This is the same Calorie as
food Calories.
• 1 kcal = 1 Calorie = 1000 calories

• 1 calorie = the amount of heat energy

required to increase the temperature of 1
gram of water 1oC.
1.5 Experimental Quantities Concentration
Concentration:
– the number of particles of a substance
– the mass of those particles
– that are contained in a specified volume
Often used to represent the mixtures of
different substances
– Concentration of oxygen in the air
– Pollen counts
– Proper dose of an antibiotic
1.5 Experimental Quantities
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density
– the ratio of mass to volume
– an extensive property
– use to characterize a substance as
each substance has a unique
density
– Units for density include:
• g/mL
• g/cm3 mass m
d= =
• g/cc volume V
1.5 Experimental Quantities

cork

water
brass nut

liquid mercury
1.5 Experimental Quantities Calculating the Density of a
Solid
• 2.00 cm3 of aluminum are found to weigh
5.40g. Calculate the density of aluminum
in units of g/cm3.
mass m
– Use the formula d= =
volume V
– Substitute our values
5.40 g
2.00 cm3
= 2.70 g / cm3
1.5 Experimental Quantities

Air has a density of 0.0013 g/mL. What

is the mass of 6.0-L sample of air?
Calculate the mass in grams of 10.0 mL
if mercury (Hg) if the density of Hg is
13.6 g/mL.
Calculate the volume in milliliters, of a
liquid that has a density of 1.20 g/mL
and a mass of 5.00 grams.
1.5 Experimental Quantities Specific Gravity
• Values of density are often related to a standard
• Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of the object in
question to the density of pure water at 4oC
• Specific gravity is a unitless term because the 2 units cancel
• Often the health industry uses specific gravity to test urine and
blood samples

density of object (g/mL)

specific gravity =
density of water (g/mL)