Transmission & Distribution

• Objectives:-
• To know about
• Transmission Systems
• Distribution system:
• Substations:
• Faults:
• Power Factor:
• Various types of Tariffs

1
Transmission Systems
• You will learn:
• layout of transmission system
• comparison between different type of transmission system
• Construction features of transmission lines:
• Mechanical features of transmission lines:
• Electrical features of line
• HVDC transmission lines
Concept of Energy Transmission

3
A transmission system includes all land, conversion structures and
equipment at a primary source of supply; lines, switching and
conversion stations between a generating or receiving point and
the entrance to a distribution centre or wholesale point, all lines
and equipment whose primary purpose is to augment, integrate or
tie together sources of power supply.
Main Parts of Power System
Four Main Parts:

Generation System

Transmission System

Distribution System

Consumer (LOAD)

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Simplified Diagram of Power System

6
Generating Station
The commonly used power plants are:

Thermal Power Plant

Nuclear Power Plant

Hydro Power Plant

Gas Turbine Power Plant

Combined Cycle Power Plant

7
Generation

• “Creates” electric energy

• Generation is fueled by coal, nuclear, wind, gas,
biomass, solar, and hydro.
• Generation voltages are 3.3 ,6.6, 11 or 33 kV, most 8
One-Line Diagram of Generating Station

Fig.1: Simplified Connection Diagram

9
Transmission

Basic Features

• Used to move power long distances from generators to load with

low losses.
• Highly interconnected for enhanced reliability
• The “interstate system” for electricity
• Traditionally built to enhance reliability for vertically integrated
utilities.
10
• Now a critical part of the electric markets
 Transmission

Can be divided into primary

and secondary transmission

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Distribution

• Primary purpose is to serve loads (your house is connected to a

distribution system)
• Generally radial (non-networked) in nature
• Not used for interstate commerce
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Distribution

Can be further divided into-

• Feeders
• Distributors
• Service mains

15
Load

• “Consumer” of electric energy

• Loads can be smaller than your cell phone hooked to its wall
charger (say 1 watt) or as large as an industrial facility (in the
10’s of millions of watts)
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 The grid of today
• Transmission network
• To transport the electric power
from the point of generation to
the load centers
• All above a certain voltage
• (Subtransmission)
• Distribution network
• To distribute the electric power
among the consumers
• Below a certain voltage
Structure of the power grid
• Transmission system
• Higher voltage (typical at least 110 kV and higher)
• Power injection by generation and import, large consumers
• Interconnected
• (Subtransmission system)
• Between transmission system and distribution system
• Connection of large industrial users and cities
• Open loop/partly meshed
• Distribution system
• 400 V to some ten of kV
• Industry, commercial and residential areas
• Radial
Transport of electric power
• Electric power P [MW] P or S = V * I
• Alternating current S [MVA]
• Two ways to increase the transported power
• Increase current I
• Larger conductor cross-section
• Increase voltage V
• More insulation
• Two ways to transport electricity
• Alternating current (AC)
• Direct current (DC)
 REASONS FOR AC GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION

Due to ease of transformation of voltage levels and rough collector cage

motors, ALTERNATING CURRENT is universally utilized. Both for
GENERATION and LOADS and hence for TRANSMISSION.
 THERMAL or HYDEL power plant
Turbines drive synchronous generators giving an output at 15-25 kV.
To reach the loads at homes/industry at required safe levels, transformers
step down voltage.
 AC transmission system
• Frequency of 50 or 60Hz
• Current changes direction 100 or 120 times a sec
• Active AND reactive power in the same line
• 3 phase system
• Line voltages can be easily and economically transformed
up and down
• AC current does not use the whole conductor
• Skin effect
• AC conductors have larger diameters
than adequate DC
Switchyard
Purpose of Electrical Transmission System

The purpose of the electric transmission

system is the efficient interconnection
of the electric energy producing power
plants or generating stations with the
loads.

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Purpose of Transmission
• To transmit power from a power
site to a market.
• For bulk supply of power to
load centres from outlying
steam stations.
• For interconnection purposes,
that is, for transfer of energy
from one system to another in
case of emergency or in
response to diversity in system
peaks.
Choice of Frequency
• As a general-purpose distribution
frequency 60 cycles has an
economic advantage over 50
cycles in that it permits a
maximum speed of 3600 rpm
as against 3000 rpm.
• Where a large number of
distribution transformers are
used a considerable economic
gain is obtained in that the
saving in materials of 60-cycle
transformers over 50-cycle
transformers may amount to 10
to 15 percent.
But frequency less than 60 cycles
might be interesting because as
the frequency is decreased the
inductive reactance of the line,
2πfL, decreases and the
capacitive reactance, 1/ 2πfC
increases, resulting in higher load
limits, transmission efficiency,
and better regulation.
Effect of Voltage on Transmission Efficiency
Choice of Voltage
The power capability of a
transmission line is
proportional to the square of
the voltage on the line.
Therefore, very high voltage
levels are used to transmit
power over long distances.
• The cost of transformers,
switches, and circuit breakers
increases rapidly with increasing
voltage in the upper ranges of
transmission voltages.
• As the voltage increases leakage
current over insulators and the
escape of energy through the
air between the conductors
(corona discharge) increases.
Choice of Voltage
In addition to these two losses, the charging current, which
increases as the transmission voltage goes higher, may either
increase or decrease the current in the circuit depending upon
the power-factor of the load current and the relative amount of
the leading and lagging components of the current in the
circuit.
Choice of working voltage for transmission

Cost of transmission line as a

function of voltage level
Selection of Transmission Voltage

Standard Voltage: 66,110,132, 220, 400 KV

Tolerances - ±10% up to 220 KV & ±5% for 400 KV

• Quantum of power to be
Selection evacuated
Criterion • Length of line
of • Voltage regulation
Economi
• Power loss in Transmission
c Voltage
• Initial and operating cost

32
Economic Voltage of Transmission of Power

E = Transmission voltage (KV) (L-L).

L KVA
* E  5. 5  L = Distance of transmission line in KM
1.6 150
KVA=Power to be transferred

* 33
Typical Transmission Voltage Levels

Voltages Level Range Maximum Length

(KV) (Miles)

High Voltage 100 to 230 200

Extra High Voltage 230 to 800 400 to 500

Ultra High Voltage Above 800 1300

 Economic size of line conductor- kelvin law
The most economical size of conductor is that for which
the variable part of the annual charges is equal to the cost
of energy losses per year.
 NECESSITY FOR EHV TRANSMISSION
With the increase in transmission voltage, for same amount of power to be
transmitted current in the line decreases which reduces I2R losses. This
will lead to increase in transmission efficiency.

With decrease in transmission current, size of conductor required reduces

which decreases the volume of conductor.

The transmission capacity is proportional to square of operating voltages.

Thus the transmission capacity of line increases with increase in voltage.

With increase in level of transmission voltage, the installation cost of the

transmission line per km decreases.

It is economical with EHV transmission to interconnect the power systems

on a large scale.

The no. of circuits and the land requirement for transmission decreases
with the use of higher transmission voltages.
 ADVANTAGES OF EHV TRANSMISSION

The major advantages are:

Redution in the current.

Reduction in the losses.

Reduction in volume of conductor material required.

Decrease in voltage drop & improvement of voltage regulation.

Increase in Transmission Efficiency.

Increased power handling capacity.

The no. of circuits & the land requirement reduces as transmission voltage
increases.

The total line cost per MW per km decreases considerably with the increase in
line voltage.
 DISADVANTAGES OF EHV TRANSMISSION

The major disadvantages are:

Corona loss & radio interference

Line supports

Erection difficulties

Insulation needs

The cost of transformers, switchgear equipments & protective equipments

increases with increase in transmission line voltage.

The EHV lines generates electrostatic effects which are harmful to human
beings & animals.
DC transmission system
• Only active power
• Current flows in one direction
• Conductor cross-sections fully used
• Low transmission losses
• Requires DC-AC converters to control the voltage level
• Expensive
• Switching of higher voltage DC more difficult
COMPARISION OF HVAC & HVDC SYSTEMS

• CONVENTIONALLY POWER TRANSMISSION IS EFFECTED THROUGH HVAC

SYSTEMS ALL OVER THE WORLD.

• HVAC TRANSMISSION IS HAVING SEVER LIMITATIONS LIKE

 LINE LENGTH ,

 UNCONTROLLED POWER FLOW,

 OVER/LOW VOLTAGES DURING LIGHTLY / OVER LOADED CONDITIONS,

 STABILITY PROBLEMS,

 FAULT ISOLATION ETC

• CONSIDERING THE DISADVANTAGES OF HVAC SYSTEM AND THE ADVANTAGES

OF HVDC TRANSMISSION , POWERGRID HAS CHOOSEN HVDC TRANSMISSION
FOR TRANSFERRING 2000 MW .
 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER HVAC
TRANSMISSION

• CONTROLLED POWER
• ASYNCHRONOUS OPERATION POSSIBLE BETWEEN REGIONS
HAVING DIFFERENT ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
• NO RESTRICTION ON LINE LENGTH AS NO REACTANCE IN
DC LINES
Frequency control
• Direct-Current (HVDC) Transmission Lines
COST: AC vs DC Transmission

Line Cost AC

Line Cost DC

Terminal Cost DC

Terminal Cost AC

Break Even Distance

HVDC IN INDIA
Back-to-Back
HVDC LINK CONNECTING CAPACITY
REGION (MW)

Vindyachal North – West 2 x 250

Chandrapur West – South 2 x 500
Vizag – I East – South 500
Sasaram East – North 500
Vizag – II East – South 500
BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF
HVDC TRANSMISSION
DC AS A MEANS OF TRANSMISSION

This has been possible with beginning of

High power/ high current capability thyristor.
&
Fast acting computerized controls
If DC is required to be used for transmission
&
since our primary source of power is A.C,

The following are three basic steps:-

1. Convert AC into DC (rectifier)
2. Transmit DC
3. Convert DC into AC ( inverter)
Any Query ?
Dual 345 kV transmission line
There two types of transmission lines:
overhead lines and buried cables.
 Comparison b/w overhead and underground
trasmission
• Overhead transmission lines
• Economical
• However, visual pollution
• Widely used in transmission over large distances
• Underground cables
• More expensive than lines
• 5 to 25 times higher capital costs for 380kV
• Repair is also more costlier.
• Underground, thus invisible to the public
• Ground above the cable can be still used
• However, maintenance costs are significant
• Widely used in urban areas
 AC cables

• AC cables vs. overhead lines

• Technical
• Almost no maintenance needed
• Repair more difficult
• Technical difficulties at high voltages
• Limited distance
Cable lines are designed to be placed
underground or under water. The conductors are
insulated from one another and surrounded by
protective sheath. Cable lines are usually more
expensive and harder to maintain. They also have
capacitance problem – not suitable for long
distance.

Transmission lines are characterized by a series resistance, inductance, and

shunt capacitance per unit length. These values determine the power-carrying
capacity of the transmission line and the voltage drop across it at full load.
AC cables
• AC cables vs. overhead lines
• Environmental
• Invisibility
• Dangers: oil spill, poisonous SF6 arcing by-products
• Social & political
• Less right-of-way needed
• Permitting takes less time
• Less concern for health risks (although electromagnetic fields are
higher)
• Ground above the cable can still be used
• Widely used in urban areas
AC cables
• Classic
• Paper insulated, oil-filled
• XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene)
• New types
• Higher voltages
• Lower losses
• More expensive
 AC Cables
New types

• Gas Insulated Cables (SF6)

• Higher voltages due to better insulation
• Suited to bulk transmission
• suitable for long distances
• Complex placement (many joints)
• Arcing by-products hazardous for environment
• Considered for future tunnel connections (e.g. in the Alps)
• Temperature protection
• Operating very close to limits
Cables
Overhead line
Components of a overhead Transmission Line
Transmission
Tower
Conductor

Earth wire

Guys and stays

Insulator
Wave trap and other
hardware(cross arm and
Clamp, Spacer,
Vibration dampers,
connectors etc.
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The line supports are poles and the chief requirements for
such supports are :

i) They must be mechanically strong with factor of safety of

2.5 to 3 .

ii ) They must be light in weight without the loss of strength .

iii ) They must have least number of parts .
iv ) They must be cheap .
v) Their maintenance cost should be minimum .
vi ) They must be easily accessible for point and erection of
line conductors .
vii ) They must have longer life .
viii ) They must be of pleasing shape
The different types of poles which can be used as line
supports are :

a. Wooden poles .
b. Steel tubular poles
c. Reinforced concrete poles .
d. Steel towers .

Fig.(1):Single phase single-circuit

Wooden Poles
• Cheapest
• Use for lines where span is short and tension is low.
• Pole has limitation of height and diameter.
• Wood has natural insulating property and lesser flashover takes
place due to lightning.
• The wooden poles generally tend to rot below the ground level,
causing foundation failure. In order to prevent this, the portion
of the pole below the ground level is impregnated with
preservative compounds like creosote oil.
• For greater strength double pole structure of ‘A’ or ‘H’ are used.
The main objections to wooden
supports are:
(i)tendency to rot below the
ground level
(ii)comparatively smaller life
(20-25 years)
(iii)cannot be used for voltages
higher than 20 kV
(iv)less mechanical strength and
(v)require periodical inspection.
Concrete Poles

• Concrete poles are reinforced to give greater strength.

• It has longer life span than that of wood
• The maintenance cost is less.
• They are heavy and are likely to get damage during loading,
unloading, transportation and erection due to their brittle
nature.
• Nowadays pre-stressed concrete supports are manufactured
in pieces.
Steel poles
• Tubular steel poles or girder steel masts is favored for low and medium distribution
voltages.
• Longer span is possible.
• Poles need to be galvanized or painted periodically to prevent corrosion.
• Maintenance is expensive.

Steel Towers
• Lines of 66 KV are supported on towers.
• They fabricated from painted or galvanized angle section which are transported separately
and erection done on site.
• Long life and high degree of reliability
• They can withstand severe weather conditions.
• The height of the towers depend on operating voltage and span length.
• The leg of the tower are set on concrete foundation
Transmission line (Steel tower)
Types of steel towers
1. Tangent towers
• They are used for straight runs.
• Stress is due to weight of line, wind and ice load.
• Extra forces due to break in the line on one side.
• Base is either square or rectangle.
• Suspension type insulators used.

2. Deviation tower
• They are used where transmission line changes
direction.
• They have broader base , stronger members and are
costlier
• Strain insulators are used.
They are classified
i. Small angle towers(2o-15ochange in direction)
ii. Medium angle towers(15o-30ochange in direction)
iii. Large angle towers(30o-60ochange in direction)
Transmission line (Steel tower)
Types of Towers

Type A Tower (Tangent Tower • Used on straight runs and up to 2° line diversion
with suspension string)

Type B Tower (Small Angle • Used for line deviation from 2° to 15°
Tower with tension string)

Type C Tower (Medium Angle • Used for line deviation from 15° to 30°.
Tower with tension string ).

Type D Tower (Large angle • Used for line deviation from 30° to 60°
tower with tension string)

Type E Tower (Dead End • Used for line termination & starting
Tower with tension string)

Suspension Tower (Span •

Used for River crossing, Mountain crossing etc.
≈ 1000 m)

Transposition Tower • Used for transposition of tower

85
Suspension Tower Transposition Tower Tension Tower
Different Types of Towers

87
Selection of Tower Structure

Single circuit Tower/ double circuit Tower

Length of the insulator assembly

Minimum clearances to be maintained between conductors, and between

conductors and tower

Location of earth wire/wires with respect to the outermost conductor

Mid-span clearance required from considerations of the dynamic behavior of

conductors and lightning protection of the line

Minimum clearance of the lowest conductor above ground level

88
EHV- Tower

• The figure shows a lattice,

Tower: steel tower.

• V strings hold four

Insulator: bundled conductors in
each phase

• Each conductor is
Conductor: stranded, steel reinforced
aluminum cable.

• Steel-reinforced concrete
Foundation and foundation and grounding
grounding: electrodes placed in the
ground

• Two grounded shield

conductors protect the
Shield conductors: phase conductors from
lightning.
89
Tower Design

Tower height

Base width

Top damper width

Cross arms length

Fig. Typical 765 KV Tower Structure

90
Height of Tower Structure

Height of tower is determine by-

H  h1  h 2  h3  h 4
h1=Minimum permissible ground
clearance

h2=Maximum sag

h3=Vertical spacing between conductors

h4=Vertical clearance between earth-

wire and top conductor

91
Determination of Base Width

The base width(at the concrete level) is the distance between the centre of
gravity at one corner leg and the centre of gravity of the adjacent corner leg.

A particular base width which gives the minimum total cost of the tower and
foundations

Ryle
Formula

An applied force that causes a structure to turn over

The ratio of base width to total tower height for most towers is generally
about one-fifth to one-tenth.

92
92
Transmission Line

Span Supporting
Tower Tension Tower
Tension Tower
Insulator
Sag
 Sag in Overhead Lines
The difference in level between points of
supports and the lowest point on the
conductor is called sag.
Fig. 8.23. (i) shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A and B. The
conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The lowest point on the conductor is
O and the sag is S. The following points may be noted :

(i) When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, it takes the shape of
catenary. However, if the sag is very small compared with the span, then sag-span curve is like a
parabola.
(ii) The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus tension To
at the lowest point O acts horizontally as shown in Fig. 8.23. (ii).
(iii) The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire.
(iv) The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at any point on the
wire. Thus if T is the tension at the support B, then T= To
 Conductor sag and tension.
This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead lines. The
conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor material
required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above ground level. It is
also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the mechanical failure
of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports. However, low conductor
tension and minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag means a tight wire and
high tension, whereas a low tension means a loose wire and increased sag. Therefore, in
actual practice, a compromise is made between the two.
 Calculation of Sag
(i) When supports are at equal levels.
Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports
A and B with O as the lowest point as shown in Fig.
8.24. It can be proved that lowest point will be at
the mid-span.
Calculation of Sag
 Calculation of Sag
(ii) When supports are at unequal levels.

In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors

suspended between supports at unequal levels. Fig. 8.25 shows
a conductor suspended
between two supports A and B which are at different levels.
The lowest point on the conductor is O.
Calculation of Sag
Effect of wind and ice loading
Spacing and Clearances

Ground Clearances

CL  5.182  0.305 * K
Where-  V  33 
K  
 33 

S.No. Voltage level Ground clearance(m)

1. ≤33 KV 5.20
2. 66 KV 5.49
3. 132KV 6.10
4. 220 KV 7.01
5. 400 KV 8.84

104
Clearance for Power Line Crossings

Crossing over • 3.05m above maximum flood level.

rivers:

Crossing over • Minimum clearances between the conductors of a

telecommunication lines power line and telecommunication wires are

Voltage Level Minimum

Clearance(mm)
≤33 KV 2440
66KV 2440
132 KV 2740
220 KV 3050
400 KV 4880

105
Power line Crossing another Power line

System Voltage Level Clearance(m)

≤ 66 KV 2.40
132 KV 2.75
220KV 4.55
400 KV 6.00

106
Spacing between the conductors
• The most suitable spacing between the
conductors can be arrived at by
mathematical calculations.

• It can only be obtained by empirical

formulae which have been obtained from
practical considerations.

Fig: Three-phase single circuit horizontal disposition of

conductor and steel towers
Generally the following formulae are used for obtaining
spacing between the conductors :

V
Spacing= S
150
Where,

S=sag in meters

V=voltage in KV
 Clearances b/w Conductors
SYSTEM TYPE OF Vertical spacing b/w Horizontal spacing b/w
VOLTAGE TOWER conductors(mm) conductors(mm)

SINGLE
CIRCUIT 1080 4500

66 kV
DOUBLE
CIRCUIT 2060 5550

SINGLE
CIRCUIT 4200 7140

132 KV DOUBLE
CIRCUIT 3965 7320

109
Types of Conductors

• AAC(All Aluminium Conductor)

• AAAC(All Alloy Aluminium Conductor)
• ACSR Conductor(Aluminium Conductor Steel
Reinforced)

Fig. AAC Conductors Fig. AAAC Conductors

110
 Choice of conductors
An overhead transmission line usually consists of three conductors or
bundles of conductors containing the three phases of the power system.
The conductors are usually aluminum conductor steel reinforced
(ACSR), which are steel core (for strength) and aluminum wires (having
low resistance) wrapped around the core.
In overhead transmission lines, the
conductors are suspended from a pole
or a tower via insulators.
 Table: Technical Data of ASCR Conductors Commonly used in EHV Transmission By Wapda.

Code         Stranding  Weight Per Km Weight       Diameter Cross Area of Rated D.C
Words Aluminum     Steel Aluminum Steel Complete Complete   Steel  Area of Complete Ultimate Resistance at 200
Conductor    Core Conductor Conductor  Core Aluminum Conductor Strength
ohm/km
No/mm      No/mm kg/km     kg/km kg/km     mm        mm mm2 mm2 kg

Gopher 6/2.36 1/2.36 72 34.1 106 7.08 2.36 26.25 30.62 980 1.093
Rabbit 6/3.35 1/3.35 145.1 68.8 214 10.05 3.35 52.88 61.69 1875 0.543
Dog 6/4.72 7/1.57 288.1 106.2 394 14.15 4.71 104.98 118.53 3225 0.273
Hare 6/4.72 1/4.72 288.1 136.5 425 14.16 4.72 105 122.5 3225 0.273
Osprey 16/4.465 ¼.465 777 121.8 898.8 22.23 4.465 281.9 297.56 6220 0.123
Cuckoo 24/4.62 7/3.08 1116 407.6 15424 27.72 9.24 402.33 454.48 12385 0.072
Zebra 54/3.18 7/3.18 1182 439 1621 28.62 3.18 428.9 484.59 13000 0.0686
Moose 54/3.53 7/3.53 1463 535 1998 31.77 3.53 528.5 597.0 16224 0.0559
Panther 30/3 7/3 588 387 976 21 3 212.1 261.5 9150 0.07311

400kv - 'Moose' ACSR

220kv - 'Zebra' ACSR
132kv - 'Panther' ACSR

Fig. ASCR Conductors 113

Selection of Conductor Size

• Mechanical Requirement

• Electrical Requirement

• Tensile Strength(For
Mechanical Tension)
Requiremen
• Strain Strength(For
t
Vibration)

Use vibration damper for vibration control.

114
 • Continuous current rating.
• Short time current carrying rating.
Electrical • Voltage drop
Requiremen • Power loss
t • Minimum dia to avoid corona
• Length of line
• Charging current

115
Continuous Current Rating.

The designated RMS alternating current in amperes which a

conductor will carry continuously in free air without tripping or
exceeding temperature limits.

The normal continuous current rating of line traps is per

manufacturer’s nameplate and based at 40°C ambient
temperature.

116
INSULATOR

Insulator are required to support the line conductor

and provide clearance from ground and structure.

Insulator material-
• High grade Electrical Porcelain
• Toughened Glass
• Fiber Glass

Choice of insulator material is govern by availability,

price and ease of maintenance.
 TYPES OF INSULATORS
There are several types of insulators but the
most commonly used are :
1) Pin Insulator
2) Suspension Insulator
3) Strain Insulator and
4) Shackle insulator.
PIN INSULATOR
 A pin insulator consists of a non-conducting material such as porcelain,
glass, plastic, polymer, or wood.
As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the
pole.
There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.
The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire
of the same material as the conductor.
 Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric
power at voltages upto 33 kV.
Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky
and hence uneconomical
Fig.) Pin Insulator
 Causes of failures
• Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses.
• The electrical stress is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the
breakdown of the insulator.
• The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash over or
puncture.
• In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin
(i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest
distance. Figure shows the arcing distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator.
• In case of flash-over, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity
unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator.
• In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through
the body of the insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is
permanently destroyed due to excessive heat. In practice, sufficient
thickness of porcelain is provided in the insulator to avoid puncture by the
line voltage.
• The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety
factor .
SUSPENSION INSULATOR

Fig.) Glass suspension

insulator
Ball and socket type suspension insulator

Iron Cap
Locking Key
Ball Socket
Insulator's Head
Compression
Expansion Layer Loading

Imbedded Sand Cement

Insulating Glass
or Porcelain
Skirt

Petticoats Steel Pin

Ball
Corrosion Sleeve
for DC Insulators
 For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type
insulators consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal
links in the form of a string.
 The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other
end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower.
 Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 kV.
 The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working
voltage.
 For instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in series will be
provided on the string.
 Number of Insulators
per String
Line Voltage

69 kV 4–6

115 kV 7–9

138 kV 8–10

230 kV 12

345 kV 18

500 kV 24

765 kV 30–35
ADVANTAGES

• Each unit is designed for operating voltage of about 11KV .

• The string is free to swing in any direction.
• It is designed for longer span and higher mechanical loading.
• There is decreased liability to lightning disturbance if the string is
suspended from a metallic structure, which work as lightning shield.

DISADVANTAGES
• Spacing between conductor is increased
• Height of tower increases
• Cost is high.
Fig.) Suspension Insulator
STRAIN INSULATOR
 When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve,
the line is subjected to greater tension.
 In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used.
 For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain
insulators.
 However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulator consists of
an assembly of suspension insulators as shown in Figure.
 The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane.
 When the tension in lines is exceedingly high, at long river spans, two or
more strings are used in parallel.
Fig.) Strain Insulator
SHACKLE INSULATOR
 Shackle type insulators, similar to strain type insulators, are used on sharp curves,
end poles and in section poles.
 However, unlike strain insulators, shackle insulators are designed to support lower
voltages.
 These insulators are single, round porcelain parts that are mounted horizontally or
vertically.
 They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.
Fig.) Shackle Insulator
V-Strings
A single string of insulator follows the
conductor and sways like a pendulum in a
strong side wind.
V-strings are used to prevent conductor
movement at towers. They are used for high
voltage transmission system.

Lattice Guyed tower

In addition to phase conductors, a transmission line usually
includes one or two steel wires called ground/earth (shield) wires.
These wires are electrically connected to the tower and to the
ground, and, therefore, are at ground potential.

In large transmission
lines, these wires are
located above the phase
conductors, shielding
them from lightning.
Earth Wire

Earth wire provided above the phase conductor across the

line and grounded at every tower.
• It shield the line conductor from direct strokes
• Reduces voltage stress across the insulating strings during lightning
strokes

Design criterion:
• Shield angle
• 25°-30° up to 220 KV
• 20° for 400 KV and above

• Earth wire should be adequate to carry very short

duration lightning surge current of 100 KA without A  5 I  t
excessive over heating
A= Area(in mm2) of cu conductor
I =current in KA
• Duration should be consider as 200 µ-sec t = Time in second

• Safe temp rise limited to 300°C

137
Mid span clearance:
• Direct distance b/w earth wire and top power conductor.

Following value of mid span clearance should be considered

System voltage Mid span clearance(m)

≤ 66 KV 3.0
110 KV 4.5
132 KV 6.1
220 KV 8.5
400 KV 9.0

138
Tower Grounding

Used to reduce earth wire potential and stress on

insulators at the time of stroke and also for safety

• Tower footing resistance will be 10Ω and

should not be more than 20 Ω under any
condition throughout the year

• Earth resistance depend upon soil

resistivity(general 100 Ω-m)

139
Method of Tower Grounding

• One or more conductor are connected to tower

Buried lags and buried in back filled of tower foundation.
Conductor • Used where soil resistivity is low

• A length of wire/ Strip of 50 m is buried horizontally at depth

Counterpois of 0.5 m bellow ground. This wire is connected to tower lags.
e Wire • Used when earth resistance is very high and soil
conductivity is mostly confined to upper layer)

• Pipe/Rod of 3 to 4 m is driven into ground near the

Rod Pipe tower and top of rod is connected to tower by suitable
wire/strip
• Used where ground conductivity increase with depth

• Pipe/Rod of 3 to 4 m are buried in treated earth pits and

Treated Earth top of rod is connected to tower by suitable wire/strip.
Pits • Used in very high resistivity near tower

140
141
• Internal inductance is independent of size or radius of
the conductor.
• Since the flux density is gradually increasing from centre
of conductor towards surface of conductor, so Lint exists
in case of ACSR or solid conductor.
For single phase line
Inductance of a transmission line

A two-conductor A four-conductor
bundle bundle
• Without transposition, the middle conductor will suffer maximum flux
linkage, so current flowing through this conductor is reduced to
outside conductor, hence the system becomes unbalance.
• For making the system to be balanced, the position of R, Y & B
conductors are changed at regular intervals of distance. This is called
transposition.
Advantage-
System becomes balance and symmetric
The interference to the surrounding communication line is reduced.
The corona effect is reduced.
The effect of capacitance and inductance in all the conductors
becomes uniform which causes uniform power flow and voltage level
in all the conductors.
The effect of ground or earth capacitance on conductors is reduced.
Capacitance of a single phase two-wire
transmission line
Thus: 
cab  (9.29.1)
D
ln
r
Which is the capacitance per unit length of a single-phase two-wire
transmission line.
The potential difference between each conductor and the ground (or neutral)
is one half of the potential difference between the two conductors.
Therefore, the capacitance to ground of this single-phase transmission line
will be
2
cn  can  cbn  (9.29.2)
D
ln
r
Capacitance of a single phase two-wire
transmission line
Similarly, the expressions for capacitance of three-phase lines (and for lines with
more than 3 phases) can be derived. Similarly to the inductance, the capacitance
of the transmission line can be found from tables supplied by line developers.
Analysis shows that:
1. The greater the spacing between the phases of a transmission line, the lower
the capacitance of the line. Since the phases of a high-voltage overhead
transmission line must be spaced further apart to ensure proper insulation, a
high-voltage line will have a lower capacitance than a low-voltage line. Since
the spacing between lines in buried cables is very small, shunt capacitance of
cables is much larger than the capacitance of overhead lines. Cable lines are
normally used for short transmission lines (to min capacitance) in urban areas.
2. The greater the radius of the conductors in a transmission line, the higher the
capacitance of the line. Therefore, bundling increases the capacitance. Good
transmission line is a compromise among the requirements for low series
inductance, low shunt capacitance, and a large enough separation to provide
insulation between the phases.
Shunt capacitive admittance
The shunt capacitive admittance of a transmission line depends on both the
capacitance of the line and the frequency of the power system. Denoting the
capacitance per unit length as c, the shunt admittance per unit length will be

yC  j c  j 2 fc (9.31.1)

The total shunt capacitive admittance therefore is

YC  yC d  j 2 fcd (9.31.2)

where d is the length of the line. The corresponding capacitive reactance is the
reciprocal to the admittance:

1 1
ZC  j (9.31.3)
YC 2 fcd
Example
Example : An 8000 V, 60 Hz, single-phase, transmission line consists of two hard-
drawn aluminum conductors with a radius of 2 cm spaced 1.2 m apart. If the
transmission line is 30 km long and the temperature of the conductors is 200C,
a. What is the series resistance per kilometer of this line?
b. What is the series inductance per kilometer of this line?
c. What is the shunt capacitance per kilometer of this line?
d. What is the total series reactance of this line?
e. What is the total shunt admittance of this line?

a. The series resistance of the transmission line is

l
R
A
Ignoring the skin effect, the resistivity of the line at 200 will be 2.8310-8 -m and
the resistance per kilometer of the line is
 l 2.83 108 1000
r   0.0225 km
A   0.02 2
Example
b. The series inductance per kilometer of the transmission line is
1 D 1 1.2  3
l   ln   1000    ln   1000  1.738  10 H km
 4 r   4 0.02 
c. The shunt capacitance per kilometer of the transmission line is
   8.854 1012
cab  1000  1000  6.794 109 F km
D 1.2
ln ln
r 0.02
d. The series impedance per kilometer of the transmission line is
zse  r  jx  r  j 2 fl  0.0225  j 2  60 1.738 10 3  0.0225  j 0.655 km
Then the total series impedance of the line is

Z se   0.0225  j 0.655   30  0.675  j19.7

Example
e. The shunt admittance per kilometer of the transmission line is

yC  j 2 fc  j 2  60  6.794 109  j 2.561 10 6 S m

The total shunt admittance will be

Yse   j 2.561 106   30  j 7.684 10 5 S

The corresponding shunt capacitive reactance is

1 1
Z sh   5
  j13.0k 
Ysh j 7.684 10
Transmission line models
Unlike the electric machines studied so far, transmission lines are characterized by
their distributed parameters: distributed resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
The distributed series and shunt elements of the transmission line make it harder
to model. Such parameters may be approximated by many small discrete
resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

However, this approach is not very practical, since it would require to solve for
voltages and currents at all nodes along the line. We could also solve the exact
differential equations for a line but this is also not very practical for large power
systems with many lines.
Transmission line models
Fortunately, certain simplifications can be used…
Overhead transmission lines shorter than 80 km (50 miles) can be modeled as a
series resistance and inductance, since the shunt capacitance can be neglected
over short distances.
The inductive reactance at 60 Hz for – overhead
lines – is typically much larger than the resistance
of the line.

For medium-length lines (80-240 km), shunt

capacitance should be taken into account.
However, it can be modeled by two capacitors of
a half of the line capacitance each.

Lines longer than 240 km (150 miles) are long transmission lines and are to be
discussed later.
Transmission line models
The total series resistance, series reactance, and shunt admittance of a
transmission line can be calculated as

R  rd (9.37.1)

X  xd (9.37.2)

Y  yd (9.37.3)

where r, x, and y are resistance, reactance, and shunt admittance per unit length
and d is the length of the transmission line. The values of r, x, and y can be
computed from the line geometry or found in the reference tables for the specific
transmission line.
Short transmission line: phasor diagram
AC voltages are usually expressed as phasors.

Load with lagging power factor.

Load with unity power factor.

Load with leading power factor.

For a given source voltage VS and magnitude of

the line current, the received voltage is lower for
lagging loads and higher for leading loads.
Transmission line characteristics
In real overhead transmission lines, the line reactance XL is normally much larger
than the line resistance R; therefore, the line resistance is often neglected. We
consider next some important transmission line characteristics…
1. The effect of load changes
Assuming that a single generator
supplies a single load through a
transmission line, we consider
consequences of increasing load.

Assuming that the generator is ideal, an increase of load will increase a real and
(or) reactive power drawn from the generator and, therefore, the line current, while
the voltage and the current will be unchanged.

1) If more load is added with the same lagging power factor, the magnitude of the
line current increases but the current remains at the same angle  with respect to
VR as before.
Transmission line characteristics
The voltage drop across the reactance increases but stays at the same angle.
Assuming zero line resistance and remembering that
the source voltage has a constant magnitude:

VS  VR  jX L I (9.41.1)

voltage drop across reactance jXLI will stretch

between VR and VS.

Therefore, when a lagging load increases, the received voltage decreases sharply.

2) An increase in a unity PF load, on the other hand,

will slightly decrease the received voltage at the end
of the transmission line.
Transmission line characteristics
3) Finally, an increase in a load with leading
PF increases the received (terminal) voltage
of the transmission line.

In a summary:
1. If lagging (inductive) loads are added at the end of a line, the voltage at the end
of the transmission line decreases significantly – large positive VR.
2. If unity-PF (resistive) loads are added at the end of a line, the voltage at the end
of the transmission line decreases slightly – small positive VR.
3. If leading (capacitive) loads are added at the end of a line, the voltage at the end
of the transmission line increases – negative VR.
The voltage regulation of a transmission line is
Vnl  V fl
VR  100% (9.42.1)
V fl
where Vnl and Vfl are the no-load and full-load voltages at the line output.
Transmission line characteristics
2. Power flow in a transmission line
The real power input to a 3-phase transmission line can be computed as

Pin  3VS I S cos  S  3VLL , S I S cos  S (9.43.1)

where VS is the magnitude of the source (input) line-to-neutral voltage and VLL,S is
the magnitude of the source (input) line-to-line voltage. Note that Y-connection is
assumed! Similarly, the real output power from the transmission line is

Pout  3VR I R cos  R  3VLL , R I R cos  R (9.43.2)

The reactive power input to a 3-phase transmission line can be computed as

Qin  3VS I S sin  S  3VLL , S I S sin  S (9.43.3)

Transmission line characteristics
And the reactive output power is

Qout  3VR I R sin  R  3VLL , R I R sin  R (9.44.1)

The apparent power input to a 3-phase transmission line can be computed as

Sin  3VS I S  3VLL , S I S (9.44.2)

And the apparent output power is

Sout  3VR I R  3VLL , R I R (9.44.3)

Transmission line characteristics
If the resistance R is ignored, the output power of the transmission line can be
simplified…
A simplified phasor diagram of a transmission
line indicating that IS = IR = I.
We further observe that the vertical segment
bc can be expressed as either VS sin or
XLIcos. Therefore:
VS sin 
I cos   (9.45.1)
XL
Then the output power of the transmission line equals to its input power:
3VSVR sin 
P (9.45.2)
XL
Therefore, the power supplied by a transmission line depends on the angle between
the phasors representing the input and output voltages.
Transmission line characteristics
The maximum power supplied by the transmission line occurs when  = 900:

3VSVR
Pmax  (9.46.1)
XL
This maximum power is called the steady-state stability limit of the transmission line.
The real transmission lines have non-zero resistance and, therefore, overheat long
before this point. Full-load angles of 250 are more typical for real transmission lines.
Few interesting observations can be made from the power expressions:
1. The maximum power handling capability of a transmission line is a function of the
square of its voltage. For instance, if all other parameters are equal, a 220 kV
line will have 4 times the power handling capability of a 110 kV transmission line.
Therefore, it is beneficial to increase the voltage… However, very high voltages
produce very strong EM fields (interferences) and may produce a corona – glowing of
ionized air that substantially increases losses.
Transmission line characteristics
2. The maximum power handling capability of a transmission line is inversely
proportional to its series reactance, which may be a serious problem for long
transmission lines. Some very long lines include series capacitors to reduce the total
series reactance and thus increase the total power handling capability of the line.
3. In a normal operation of a power system, the magnitudes of voltages VS and VR do
not change much, therefore, the angle  basically controls the power flowing through
the line. It is possible to control power flow by placing a phase-shifting transformer at
one end of the line and varying voltage phase.

3. Transmission line efficiency

The efficiency of the transmission line is

Pout
 100% (9.47.1)
Pin
Transmission line characteristics
4. Transmission line ratings
One of the main limiting factors in transmission line operation is its resistive heating.
Since this heating is a function of the square of the current flowing through the line
and does not depend on its phase angle, transmission lines are typically rated at a
nominal voltage and apparent power.

5. Transmission line limits

Several practical constrains limit the maximum real and reactive power that a
transmission line can supply. The most important constrains are:
1. The maximum steady-state current must be limited to prevent the overheating in the
transmission line. The power lost in a line is approximated as

Ploss  3I L2 R (9.48.1)

The greater the current flow, the greater the resistive heating losses.
Transmission line characteristics
2. The voltage drop in a practical line should be limited to approximately 5%. In other
words, the ratio of the magnitude of the receiving end voltage to the magnitude of the
sending end voltage should be

VR
 0.95 (9.49.1)
VS
This limit prevents excessive voltage variations in a power system.
3. The angle  in a transmission line should typically be  300 ensuring that the power
flow in the transmission line is well below the static stability limit and, therefore, the
power system can handle transients.

Any of these limits can be more or less important in different circumstances. In short
lines, where series reactance X is relatively small, the resistive heating usually limits
the power that the line can supply. In longer lines operating at lagging power factors,
the voltage drop across the line is usually the limiting factor. In longer lines operating
at leading power factors, the maximum angle  can be the limiting f actor.
Corona discharge
Corona discharge
• Corona Discharge Effect in the transmission lines is a phenomenon in
which ionization of the surrounding air of power conductors takes
place at voltages, greater than critical break down voltage.
• hissing noise, followed by the violet glow and the production of ozone
gas and finally electrical breakdown and flash over is observed, all
these constitutes the Corona Discharge Effect Phenomenon.
 Corona Discharge Effect is affected by many
things such as
• Conductor Diameter
• number of conductors per phase
• phase spacing
• conductor surface condition
• Weather
•  altitude
•  temperature and line voltage
Important Terms
• Critical disruptive voltage.-It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at
which corona occurs.
• Visual critical voltage. - It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at
which corona glow appears all along the line conductors.
• Power loss due to corona- Formation of corona is always
accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the form of light,
heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is
exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by :
 Effects of Corona Discharge
•  Effect constitute power loss in the transmission lines popularly called
as corona loss
•  production of ozone gas
• interference with the neighbouring Radio and Television
communication lines.
How Corona Discharge Effect Occur:

• air surrounding the conductor subjects to electro static stresses.

•  ionized air surrounding the conductor acts as a virtual conductor and
increases the effective diameter of the power conductor
•  Further increase in the potential difference in the transmission lines
then a faint luminous glow of violet colour appears together along
with hissing noise.
• This phenomenon is called virtual corona and followed by production
of ozone gas which can be detected by the odor.
Methods to reduce Corona Discharge
Effect:
• By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: 
• Surface Treatments:
• Homogenous Insulators:
• Using Bundled Conductors:
• Elimination of sharp points:
• By increasing the spacing between the conductors: 
• By increasing the diameter of the conductor: 
 Mechanical Design of
Overhead Lines
Main Components of Overhead Lines

• Conductors • Vee – guards

• Supports • Guard wires
• Insulators • Phase plates
• Cross arms and clamps • Bird guard
• Guys and stays • Danger plate
• Lightning arrestors • Barbed wire
• Fuses and isolation switches • Miscellaneous items such as vibration
• Continuous earth wire. dampers, top hampers, beads for jumpers
Distribution line with no ground wire.