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ELECTRICITY
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
BACKGROUND
FIGURE 2
CONDUCTORS
Figure 4
A conductor is any element that has
one to three electrons in its outer orbit.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
CONDUCTORS
Copper is an excellent conductor
because it has only one electron in its
outer orbit. This orbit is far enough
away from the nucleus of the copper
atom that the pull or force holding the
outermost electron in orbit is relatively
weak. See Figure 5 .
FIGURE 5: Copper is an excellent conductor of
electricity because it has just one electron in its outer
orbit, making it easy to be knocked out of its orbit and
flow to other nearby atoms. This causes electron flow,
which is the definition of electricity.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
INSULATORS
Some materials hold their electrons very tightly; therefore,
electrons do not move through them very well. These materials are
called insulators. Insulators are materials with more than four
electrons in their atom’s outer orbit. Because they have more than
four electrons in their outer orbit, it becomes easier for these
materials to acquire (gain) electrons than to release electrons.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
UNITS OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is measured using meters or other test equipment.
The three fundamentals of electricity-related units include the
ampere, volt, and ohm.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
AMPERES
The ampere is the unit used throughout the world to measure current
flow. When 6.28 billion billion electrons (the name for this large number of
electrons is a coulomb ) move past a certain point in 1 second, this
represents 1 ampere of current. See Figure.
The ampere is the electrical unit for the amount of electron flow, just as
“gallons per minute” is the unit that can be used to measure the quantity of
water flow. It is named for the French electrician, Andre Marie Ampere
(1775–1836).
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
AMPERES
The conventional abbreviations and measurement for amperes are
as follows:
1. The ampere is the unit of measurement for the amount of
current flow.
2. A and amps are acceptable abbreviations for amperes .
3. The capital letter I , for intensity , is used in mathematical
calculations to represent amperes.
4. Amperes do the actual work in the circuit. It is the actual
movement of the electrons through a light bulb or motor that
actually makes the electrical device work. Without amperage
through a device it will not work at all.
5. Amperes are measured by an ammeter (not ampmeter).
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
AMPERES
VOLTS
The volt is the unit of measurement for electrical pressure. It is
named for an Italian physicist, Alessandro Volta (1745–1827). The
comparable unit using water pressure as an example would be pounds
per square inch (psi). It is possible to have very high pressures (volts)
and low water flow (amperes). It is also possible to have high water
flow (amperes) and low pressures (volts). Voltage is also called
electrical potential, because if there is voltage present in a conductor,
there is a potential (possibility) for current flow. This electrical
pressure is a result of the following:
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
VOLTS
• Excess electrons remain at one end of the wire or circuit.
• There is a lack of electrons at the other end of the wire or circuit.
• The natural effect is to equalize this imbalance, creating a pressure to
allow the movement of electrons through a conductor. It is possible to have
pressure (volts) without any flow (amperes). For example, a fully charged
12 volt battery sitting on a workbench has 12 volts of pressure potential,
but because there is not a conductor (circuit) connected between the
positive and negative posts of the battery, there is no flow (amperes).
Current will only flow when there is pressure and a circuit for the electrons
to flow in order to “equalize” to a balanced state.
Voltage does not flow through conductors, but voltage does cause current (in
amperes) to flow through conductors. See figure 9.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
FIGURE 10:
This digital multimeter set to
read DC volts is being used to
test the voltage of a vehicle
battery. Most multimeters can
also measure resistance (ohms)
and current flow (amperes).
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
OHMS
OHMS
The conventional abbreviations and measurement for resistance
are as follows:
1. The ohm is the unit of measurement for electrical resistance.
2. The symbol for ohms is Ω (Greek capital letter omega), the last
letter of the Greek alphabet.
3. The symbol used in calculations is R , for resistance .
4. Ohms are measured by an ohmmeter.
5. Resistance to electron flow depends on the material used as a
conductor.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
WATTS
WATTS
The formula can also be used to calculate the amperage
if the wattage and the voltage are known.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
FRICTION
When certain different materials are rubbed together, the
friction causes electrons to be transformed from one to the
other. Both materials become electrically charged. These
charges are not in motion, but stay on the surface where they
were deposited. Because the charges are stationary, or static,
this type of voltage is called static electricity.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
HEAT
When pieces of two different metals are joined together at
both ends and one junction is heated, current passes through
the metals. The current is very small, only millionths of an
ampere, but this is enough to use in a temperature-measuring
device called a thermocouple. See figure 12 .
Some engine temperature sensors operate in this manner. This
form of voltage is called thermoelectricity.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
CHEMICAL
Two different materials (usually metals) placed
in a conducting and reactive chemical solution
create a difference in potential, or voltage,
between them. This principle is called
electrochemistry and is the basis of the
automotive battery.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
MAGNETISM
Electricity can be produced if a conductor is moved
through a magnetic field or a moving magnetic field
is moved near a conductor. This is the principle of
how many automotive devices work, including:
Starter motor
Alternator
Ignition coils
Solenoids and relays
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
CONDUCTORS
and
RESISTANCE
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
All conductors have some resistance to current flow. The following are principles of
conductors and their resistance.
RESISTORS
Resistance is the opposition to current flow. Resistors
represent an electrical load, or resistance, to current flow. Most
electrical and electronic devices use resistors of specific values
to limit and control the flow of current. Resistors can be made
from carbon or from other materials that restrict the flow of
electricity and are available in various sizes and resistance
values. Most resistors have a series of painted color bands
around them. These color bands are coded to indicate the
degree of resistance. SEE FIGURES 17 AND 18 .
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
SERIES CIRCUITS
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
FIGURE 1:
A series circuit with three bulbs. All
current flows through all resistances
(bulbs). The total resistance of the
circuit is the sum of the total
resistance of the bulbs, and the bulbs
will light dimly because of the
increased resistance and the
reduction of current flow (amperes)
through the circuit.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
LAW 2
The current is constant throughout the entire circuit.
LAW 3
Although the current (in amperes) is constant, the voltage drops
across each resistance in the circuit. The voltage drop across
each load is proportional to the value of the resistance
compared to the total resistance.
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
LAW 1
PARALLEL CIRCUIT LAWS
The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than that of the smallest-
resistance leg. This occurs because not all of the current flows through each leg or
branch. With many branches, more current can flow from the battery just as more
vehicles can travel on a road with five lanes compared to a road with only one or two
lanes.
LAW 2
The voltage is the same for each leg of a parallel circuit.
LAW 3
The sum of the individual currents in each leg will equal the total current. The amount
of current flow through a parallel circuit may vary for each leg depending on the
resistance of that leg. The current flowing through each leg results in the same
voltage drop (from the power side to the ground side) as for every other leg of the
circuit.