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Line Coding
Line Coding is the process of converting binary data, a sequence of
bits, to a digital signal. For example, data, text, number, graphical
image, audio and video that are stored in computer memory are all
sequence of bits. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital
signal.
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Line Coding Some Characteristics Signal Levels versus Data Levels

ð digital signal can have a limited number of values. However, only

some of these values can be used to represent data; rest are used for
other purposes as we shall see shortly.
Signal Levels: The number of values allowed in a particular signal.
Data Levels: The number of values used to represent data.
Line Coding Some Characteristics Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate

4ulse Rate: It defines the number of pulses per second. ð pulse is the
minimum amount of time required to transmit a symbol.
Bit Rate: It defines the number of bits per second.

Relation between the two: If a pulse carries only 1 bit, the pulse rate
and the bit rate are the same. If the pulse carries more than 1 bit, then
the bit rate is greater than the pulse rate. So we have a formula to
calculate bit rate in relation with pulse rate:

Bit Rate = 4ulse Rate X log2L

Where L is the number of data levels of the signal.
Line Coding Some Characteristics Self-Synchronization

To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the

receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly to the senderƍs bit
interval. If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are
not matched and the receiver might interpret the signals differently
than the sender intended. Look at figure below to visualize the
problem. The sender sends 10110001, while the receiver receives
110111000011.
Line Coding Some Characteristics Self-Synchronization

ð Self-Synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the

data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there is the signal that
alerts the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of pulse. If the
receiverƍs clock is out of synchronization, these alerting points can
reset the clock.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Unipolar Encoding

The polarity of a pulse refers to whether it is positive or negative.

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level. It is named so because it
uses only one polarity. This polarity is assigned to one of the two binary
states, usually the 1. the other state, usually the 0, is represented by
zero voltage.

4roblems:
1) DC component.
2) Lack of synchronization in case of data containing long sequence
of0s and 1s.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Polar Encoding

4olar encoding uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative.
4olar encoding is classified as follows:
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Polar Encoding

Ëon return to Zero (ËRZ): In it, the value of the signal is always either
positive or negative. It is classified in two categories as follows:
1) In ËRZ
ËRZ--L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the
bit.

2) In ËRZ
ËRZ--I the signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Polar Encoding

Return to Zero (RZ): It uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
In it signal changes not between bits but during each bit. ð one bit
is represented by positive-to-zero transition in the halfway of bit
and a 0 bit by negative Ɗto-zero transition.

Disadvantage:
It requires two signal changes to encode 1 bit and therefore
occupies more bandwidth.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Polar Encoding

In Manchester Encoding, The transition at the middle of the bit is used

for both synchronization and bit representation.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Polar Encoding

In Differential Manchester encoding,

encoding, the transition at the middle of the
bit is used only for synchronization
synchronization.. The bit representation is
defined by the inversion or non inversion at the beginning of the
bit..
bit
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes Bipolar Encoding

In bipolar encoding,
encoding, we use three levels:
levels: positive, zero, and negative
negative..
Bipolar alternate mark inversion (ðMI):
(ðMI): Binary 1 is represented by
alternate 1 inversions.
inversions.
Line Coding Line Coding Schemes 2B1Q

2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary)

quaternary):: uses four voltage levels, each
representing two bits.
bits.
Block Coding

Block Coding: It was introduced to improve the performance of line

coding. Some extra bits are include to:
'Ensure synchronization
'Detect errors
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Block Coding Steps in Transformation Step 1 : Division

In this step, the sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits.

Block Coding Steps in Transformation Step 2 : Substitution

In this step, we substitute an m-bit code for an n-bit group, where

nƮm. Therefore we can map some of the n-bit groups to the m-bit
groups and some of the n-bit groups remains unused. We choose only
those n-bit codes that help us in synchronization and error detection.
Block Coding Steps in Transformation Step 3 : Line Coding

Ëow we can use one of the line coding schemes. Figure below shows
whole of the process.
Block Coding Steps in Transformation 4B/5B encoding

Data Code Data Code

]]]] 11110 ]]]
10010

]]] 01001 ]] 10011

]] ] 10100 ] ] 10110
]] 10101 ] 10111
] ]] 01010 ]] 11010
] ] 01011 ] 11011
] ] 01110 ] 11100
] 01111 11101
Block Coding Steps in Transformation 4B/5B encoding

Data Code

m
m
 00000



11111



00100




 11000




 10001





 01101

 11001

  00111
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Sampling

If you note carefully, Line and block coding can be used to convert
binary data to a digital signal. What if data is analog, such as audio or
video?
The solution is sampling. The term sampling means measuring the
amplitude of the signal at equal intervals.
Sampling Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
It uses a technique called sample and hold. ðt a given moment, the
signal level is read, then held briefly. The sampled value occurs only
instantaneously in the actual waveform, but is generalized over a still
short but measurable period in the 4ðM result.

4roblem:
4ðM converts waveform to a series of pulses, which are still analog.
Sampling Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
4CM modifies the pulses created by 4ðM to create a completely digital signal. To do
so, 4CM first quantizes the 4ðM pulses.
Quantization is a method of assigning integral values in a specific range to sampled
instances.
Sampling Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
ðfter that, it is quantized values are converted to binary data with signs
as follows:

The binary data is then converted to digital signal by using one of the
line coding or block coding technique.
Sampling Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Let us see the whole process:
Sampling Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem
The accuracy of any digital reproduction of an analog signal depends on
the number of samples taken. Question is how many samples are
sufficient?

ðccording to Ëyquist theorem, to ensure the accurate reproduction of

an original analog signal using 4ðM, the sampling rate must be at least
twice the highest frequency of the originally signal.
Sampling Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem

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