GEOTHERMAL WELL LOGGING:

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE LOGS

Benedikt Steingrímsson
ISOR – Iceland GeoSurvey
Grensásvegur 9, 108 Reykjavík
ICELAND
bs@isor.is
1. INTRODUCTION
The biggest challenge in analysing these logs is
to define the temperature and pressure
reservoir conditions by determining the
formation temperature profile for each well and
the pressure potential of permeable zones
intersected by the wells.
2. TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE LOGGING TOOLS
The most primitive method is to hook the sensor
with waterproof connection to an electric cable and
lower it into the well and measure the electric
resistance in the sensor at regular intervals.
The resistance measured is converted to
temperature using a known from calibration curve
correlating the resistance of the sensor to the
temperature. Later an electronic package was
placed in the logging probe and the information on
the temperature (the resistance in the sensor) sent
through the logging cable as a pulsed signal where
the temperature was given by the pulse frequency.
 Temperature < 175C
The Amerada and Kuster gauges
 Bourdon tube maesured temperature and

pressure
 The Kuster gauges used a bimetal sensor
 Temperature >300C The measurements

were done at 100m interval from top of the

well to bottom
 accuracy of +/- 2°C for temperature and +/-

0.2% for pressure.

K10 Geothermal
 Electronic logging tools
 Measure either temperature or pressure but

also combination tools that measure

simultaneously temperature and pressure
(PT-tools)
 Temperature > 280 C
 Data is collected into the memory every few

seconds or at ~1 meter depth

 The accuracy +/- 0.5°C for temperature and

+/-0.1bar for pressure

3. TEMPERATURE LOGS IN GEOTHEMAL
DEVELOPMENT
3.1. Temperature logs run during the drilling of
a well
 Profile A is the most common profile for the

production part of geothermal wells during

injection.
 Profile B is also measured with injection. It is

typical for high permeable wells with multiple

feed zones.
 Profile C in Figure 2 is typical for an artesian

low temperature well during drilling.

 Profile D in Figure 2 is often seen in wells just

after drilling when permeability is low.

 FIGURE 2: Schematic temperature
profiles in wells during or just after
drilling
FIGURE 3: Example of a temperature logs
during injection (9.9, 17.8 and 27.1 l/s)
3.2. Temperature logs after drilling. Estimation
of formation temperatures
The main objective in analysing the temperature
logs after drilling is, however, centre towards
the estimation of the temperature of the
formations surrounding the well. Low
permeability wells will heat slowly over a period
of several months as the heating rate is
controlled by heat conduction alone and will
eventually reach equilibrium temperatures
matching the formation temperatures.
175 and 230 m -> well
intersected two warm
water aquifers with
yielding 3 l/s of 25°C
water.
350 and 520 m ->
Cooling zones, indicate
infiltration of cooling
water into the formation
but no fluid flow is
observed in the
temperature logs at
these depths FIGURE 4: Heating
230m to bottom at profiles for a low
600m-> the temperature well
The ground water system was cased and
production casing set at 800 m, before the well
was drilled to 1804 m.

FIGURE 5: Temperature logs in well

NJ-12 and formation temperature
Analyses of the
temperature logs in
HE-55 in Figure 6
indicate that the
interzonal flow is a
down flow from 900 to
2400 m. Minor cooler
inflows into the well
from 1000 to 1400 m
and a small negative
slope suggests that the
formation temperature
is slightly lower than
the most resent log. FIGURE 6: Formation
temperature in a well with
internal down flow
Pink line shows the
existence of a shallow
~200°C hot convective
reservoir zone down to
~1200 m and a deeper
boiling reservoir from
there on to the 2200 m
at least, where the
temperature rises from
~200°C at 1200 m to
300°C at 1400 m from
there on to 345°C, at
bottom.
FIGURE 7: Temperature logs
and formation temperature in
KJ-11
First suggested boiling
formation temperatures
from surface down to at
least 700 m. The well
came under pressure
and developed a steam
cap of up to 55 bar
pressure and 270°C
temperature from the
wellhead down to more
than one km depth in
the well.
FIGURE 8: Temperature logs and
formation temperature for well
ÞG-3
FIGURE 9: Various formation temperature profiles for Icelandic
geothermal wells. The black curve is the BPD-curve and the
point A on the graph is set at200°C at 1 km depth, which
distinguishes between high and low temperaturesystems
1. Linear profiles indicate little or no vertical
fluid flow in a low permeability formation. The
gradient of the three linear logs in Figure 9
are much higher or 60 to 140°C/km
becausehigher heat flux from volcanic active
regions
2. Isothermal formation temperature profiles are
found in regions of deep infiltration,
circulation, convection, of the fluids. The
isothermal profil of liquid dominated
geothermal reservoirs for temperatures up to
250°C and The isothermal profil of steam
dominated geothermal reservoirs for
temperatures up to 240°C. Reservoir Pressure
is 3 bar
3. Boiling formation temperature profiles are
common in geothermal system with reservoir
temperatures in the range of 300°C.
4. Temperature reversals are sometimes seen
in formation temperature curves (well MG-
39 in Figure 9).
3.3 Temperature maps of geothermal reservoirs

FIGURE 10: West to East Temperature

Cross Section for the Krafla field
4. PRESSURE LOGS
The logging is carried out in order to study well
conditions (fluid flow, boiling etc.), in order to
map reservoir pressures and to study transient
pressure variations due to fluid injection or
production and monitoring of long term
pressure changes due to exploitation
4.2 Pressure in boreholes
The pressure gradient in a flowing geothermal
well will change with depth (z direction)
according to the following equation:
dP/dz = (dp/dz)friction + (dP/dz)acceleration +
(dP/dz)hydrostatic

If there is no fluid flow in the well the first two

terms are zero and the pressure gradient
becomes only the hydrostatic (gravity
dependent) term or:
dP/dz = (dP/dz)hydrostatic = ρg
FIGURE 11: Types of pressure profiles in
geothermal wells
FIGURE 12: Pivot point in pressure logs during
heating
6.3. Reservoir pressures
This pressure profile can
be measured in the well
if the temperature profile
at the end of the heating
period is identical to the
formation (reservoir)
temperature.

FIGURE 13: Reservoir

pressure curve estimated
from the pivot point using
hydrostatic extrapolation
6.4 Pressure maps
These maps will
indicate fluid flow
directions in the
reservoir in the
natural state prior to
exploitation and
after exploitation
starts the pressure
maps will show
pressure drawdown
in the reservoir.
FIGURE 14: The Nesjavellir
Geothermal Field. Pressure
map at sea level (~200 m
7. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECCOMENDED
LITTERATURE
This paper has presented a brief description of
geothermal well logging for temperature and
pressure and the most common interpretation
methods.
 LOGGING, TESTING AND
MONITORING GEOTHERMAL WELLS

Gudni Axelsson1 and Benedikt Steingrímsson2

1,2Iceland GeoSurvey (ÍSOR)
1University of Iceland
Reykjavík
ICELAND
gax@isor.is
1. INTRODUCTION
Geothermal wells can be classified as one of
three principal types:
1) Liquid-phase low-temperature wells, which
produce liquid water at well-head
2) Two-phase high-temperature wells where
the flow from the feed-zone(s) is liquid or
two-phase and the wells produce either a
two-phase mixture or dry-steam.
3) Dry-steam high-temperature wells where
the flow from the feed-zone(s) to the well-
head is steam-dominated.
2. RESERVOIR PHYSICS RESEARCH DURING
DRILLING
2.1 During drilling
The principal research conducted during drilling
of geothermal wells is achieved through logging
of the wells, often called wireline logging.
Parameters for different purposes as a function
of depth.
The following are the main logging methods
applied during geothermal well drilling:
1) Caliper and cement bond logging aimed at
measuring variations in well diameter and
assessing the integrity of casing cementing.
2) Geophysical logging aimed at estimating
different physical properties of the rock
formationsintersected by the well.
3) Fracture imaging is increasingly being used to
study specific fractures and fracture
distribution in wells.
4) Temperature and pressure logging can be
viewed as the main reservoir physics logging
performed during drilling.
FIGURE 1: An example of a televiewer image of a highly productive,
open feed-zone in a geothermal well in Iceland striking NW-SE and
dipping 7° from the vertical (Steingrímsson, 2011b)
2.2 At completion

FIGURE 2: A sketch showing typical temperature profiles

measured during drilling, the first with one main circulation loss
at depth (A), the second with a shallow and deep circulation loss
(B) and the third with shallow inflow (because of higher pressure
in the loss-zone outside the well), down-flow and deep outflow
The
   following are the parameters usually
estimated on basis of step-rate test data:
 Injectivity indeks

 Formation transissivity or permeability-

thickness

 Formation storage coefficient

S = sh (or shg)
 Skin factor of the well
 Wellbore storage capacity
For
   liquid phase low-temperature wells a more

accurate productivity relationship can usually

be put forward relating mass flow-rate (q) and
well pressure (p):

where :
= Well pressure before production starts
= Transient changes in well pressure
FIGURE 3: Examples of productivity curves (i.e. Equation
1) for liquid-phase low-temperature geothermal wells
with varying characteristics. Based on real Icelandic
examples (see Axelsson and Gunnlaugsson, 2000).
FIGURE 4: A sketch of the basic Theis-model (top) used to
analyse pressure transient well-test data along with
several variants of the basic model (Bödvarsson and
Whiterspoon, 1989)
FIGURE 5: Responses of the models in Figure 4 plotted
on a semi-logarithmic plot (linear pressure change vs.
logarithmic time) demonstrating the linear behaviour,
which is the basis of the semilogarithmic analysis
method (Bödvarsson and Whiterspoon, 1989)
 FIGURE 6: An early example of the results of
computerized simulation of step-rate injection test
data by a Theis-model response (Bödvarsson et al.,
1984). Data from a high-temperature production well
in the Krafla volcanic geothermal system in N-Iceland.
2.3 During stimulation
The purpose of stimulation operations is to enhance
the output of wells either by improving near-well
permeability that has been reduced by the drilling
operation itself or to open up hydrological
connections to permeable zones not intersected by
the well.

The methods most commonly used involve applying

high-pressure water injection. Chemical stimulation
(mostly applying acid) methods are also used.

The results of stimulation operations are usually

assessed through repeated step-rate well-tests and
by comparing injectivity (or productivity) indices
estimated before, during and after stimulation
operations.
3. RESERVOIR PHYSICS RESEARCH DURING
WARM-UP AND TESTING
3.1 During warm-up

FIGURE 7: Example of the use of the Horner method to

estimate undisturbed formation temperature from
heating-up data (temperature recovery data) collected at a
certain depth following drilling completion (Grant and
FIGURE 8: Two examples of repeated temperature logs measured in two
wells in the Olkaria Domes geothermal field in Kenya, OW-911A and
OW-912, with the purpose of estimating the undisturbed temperature
(formation temperature) around the wells (Mwarania, 2010). Also shown
are the estimated formation temperature profiles for each well along
with boiling point curves for estimated formation pressure conditions.
3.2 During output testing
In the case of high temperature wells this
usually involves spontaneous discharge through
boiling at depth in the wellbore, which creates
the pressure drop necessary to drive the flow of
geothermal fluid from the reservoir, through
the well, and to the surface (discharge testing).

In the case of lower temperature wells either

sufficient overpressure in the reservoir, which
creates free-flow (artesian) from wells, or
pumping, is required for output testing. In
many cases high temperature wells need to be
discharge stimulated through a variety of
methods before discharge can be sustained.
3.2
   During output testing

This involves measuring, or estimating, two out

of four key parameters; liquid-flow (qw),
steam-flow (qs), total flow (qtotal) or enthalpy
of the flow (ht). Once any two have been
determined the other parameters can be
estimated based on the following equations:
FIGURE 9: Discharge test data from well OW-915A in
the Olkaria Domes field in Kenya (Mwarania, 2010).
In general the productivity of geothermal wells
is a complex function of well-bore parameters
(diameter, friction factors, feed-zone depth,
skin factor, etc.), feed-zone temperature and
enthalpy, feed-zone pressure, reservoir
permeability and storativity, well-head pressure
or depth to water level during production and
temperature conditions around the well. For
two-phase high-temperature wells a simple
relationship as given by Equation 1 can’t be set
up between flow-rate and well-head pressure.
FIGURE 10: General examples of productivity curves
for two types of two-phase high-temperature
geothermal wells
FIGURE 11: The relationship between productivity and injectivity indices
for several hightemperature geothermal wells worldwide (Rutagarama,
2012). The red line represents PI = II while the blue line represents PI =
II/3.
3.3 For Reinjection wells
During this long-term injection testing tracer
test are often conducted to study the
connection between the designated reinjection
well and near-by production wells, with the
danger of cooling of the production wells in
mind.
4. MONITORING
Monitoring the physical changes in a geothermal
reservoir during exploitation is in principle
simple and involves measuring the (1) mass and
heat transport, (2) pressure, and (3) energy
content (temperature in most situations).

Measurements must be made at high-

temperatures and pressures and reservoir
access for measurements is generally limited to
a few wells, and the relevant parameters can’t
be measured directly throughout the remaining
reservoir volume.
Monitoring programs have to be specifically
designed for each geothermal reservoir,
because of their individual characteristics and
the distinct differences inherent in the metering
methodology adopted.
Indirect monitoring involves monitoring the
changes occurring at depth in geothermal
systems through various surface observations,
i.e. geophysical surveying.
The indirect monitoring method having the
greatest applicability at present seems to be
combined surface elevation and gravity
monitoring.
FIGURE 13: The production and pressure response history of
the Palinpinion-1 geothermal field in the Philippines (Aqui et
al.,2005), presented as an example of long-term monitoring
data from a hightemperature field
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 Reservoir physics (reservoir engineering)
research conducted through geothermal
wells, in particular logging, well-testing and
monitoring.
 Temperature and pressure logging during

drilling ompletion, warm-up and discharge

testing as essential in estimating accurately
reservoir physical conditions as well as for
appraising well feed-zones.
 It should be kept in mind that these
parameters, which are assumed constant, are
only approximate as well productivity is
usually a slowly varying function of time.
 Injectivity indices of geothermal wells
estimated on the basis of step-rate well-test
data and productivity indices estimated from
down-hole pressure data collected during
discharge testing provide importantirst stage
estimates of well productivity.