Mechanical Properties

of
Materials

1
CO1:

Ability to describe, compare and analyze

problems related to engineering materials
including mechanical, electrical and
magnetic properties.
 (2.1) Stress and Strain in Metals
• Elastic Deformation & Plastic Deformation
• Engineering Stress & Engineering Strain
• Poisson’s Ratio
• Shear Stress & Shear Strain
 Elastic Deformation

Elastic means reversible!

F Linear- • Ability for a metal to return to its

elastic original dimensions when the
Non-Linear- force is removed.
elastic
d • The metal atoms do not take up
new positions.
 Plastic Deformation

F Plastic means permanent!

• A metal cannot fully recover its original

linear linear dimensions when the force is removed.
elastic elastic
d
d plastic • The metal atoms are permanently
displaced from their original positions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTT1W2uqLas
 Engineering Stress

1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
 Exercise 1
A 0.5 cm diameter aluminum bar is subjected to
a tensile force of 500 N. Calculate the
engineering stress in Mpa on the bar.

Exercise 2
A 1.25 cm diameter bar is subjected to a load of
2500 kg. Calculate the engineering stress on the
bar in Mpa.
Engineering Strain
Strain: When a uniaxial tensile
force is applied, it causes the
rod to be elongated in the
direction of force.

Strain is always
dimensionless.

% engineering strain = engineering strain x 100%

= % elongation
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:

d /2

-dL
e= d Lo eL =
Lo wo wo

d /2
L
• Shear strain:

q Strain is always
x dimensionless.

y 90º - q Shear Modulus, G = shear stress (τ)

shear strain (γ)
90º
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 Shear Modulus
REVIEW

Stress-Strain Graph

• Hooke’s law for shear Tensile Strength

(TS), M Fracture
point, f
G is shear modulus of
elasticity or modulus of
rigidity
Proportional
G can be measured as slope Limit

of line on τ-γ diagram, G =

τpl/ γpl

The three material constants

E, ν, and G is related by :
G= E
Shear Modulus, G= τ / γ 2(1 + ν)

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• Material will exhibit linear-elastic behavior till its
proportional limit, τpl
• Strain-hardening continues till it reaches ultimate
shear stress, τu
• Material loses shear strength till it fractures, at
stress of τf
 Poisson’s Ratio
• When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates
and contracts laterally.
• when subjected to an axial compressive force, it will
contract and its sides expand laterally.

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 Poisson’s Ratio
• Strains of the bar are:

Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic range, ration of the two strains is a
constant value, since both are proportional.

ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic material

Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation cause lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice versa
Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions
Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

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Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

A tensile stress (σz)

produces an:
• axial strain +εz
• lateral contractions
of –εx and –εy.
 
EXERCISE 3

A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of

a cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm.
Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a mm change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic.
 ANSWER:

For strain in x-direction

Strain in Z direction

Note: Refer to lecture slide for brass poisson’s ratio

(2.2) The Tensile Test & Engineering Stress-Strain
Diagram
• Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram
• Modulus of Elasticity
• Yield Strength
• Tensile Strength
• Ductility
# Percent elongation at fracture
# Percent reduction in area at fracture
 Tensile / Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

extensometer specimen

gauge
length

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTT1W2uqLas
 Stress–Strain Behavior

Table 1 - Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Modulus, and Poisson’s

Ratio for Various Metal Alloys
 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:

s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

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 Modulus of elasticity (E) (also known as Young's modulus) :
• Stress (σ) and strain (ε) are linearly related in elastic region.
(Hooks law)

s=Ee Stress E=
Δσ
Δε
Δσ
σ (Stress)
E= Δε
ε (Strain)
Strain
• Higher the bonding strength Linear portion of the
stress strain curve
between the atoms, higher is
the modulus of elasticity.

• Examples: Modulus of Elasticity of steel is 207 Gpa.

Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum is 76 Gpa
Stress-Strain Behavior

There are some material such as gray cast

iron, concrete and many polymers which
this elastic portion of the stress-strain curve
is not linear

Tangent modulus = E (Modulus of elastic)

Schematic stress–strain diagram showing

non-linear elastic behavior, and how secant
and tangent moduli are determined.
 Stress-Strain Behavior
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal

Force versus inter-atomic separation for

weakly and strongly bonded atoms. The
magnitude of the modulus of elasticity
is proportional to the slope of each
curve at the equilibrium inter-atomic
separation ro.

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 EXERCISE 4

A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is

pulled in tension with a stress of 276MPa. If
the deformation is entirely elastic, what will
be the resultant elongation?
 
ANSWER:

σ = 276 MPa

Note: E – refer to stress-strain behavior table

 EXERCISE 5

A piece of aluminum originally long is half of

600mm pulled in tension with a stress of
275MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic,
what will be the resultant elongation?
Ans: 1.195x10-3
Exercise 6
From the tensile stress-strain
behavior for the brass specimen
shown in the figure, determine the
following:

a) The modulus of elasticity

b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002

c) The maximum load that can be sustained by

a cylindrical specimen having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm

d) The change in length of a specimen

originally 250 mm long that is subjected to a
tensile stress of 345MPa
 
a) Modulus of Elasticity, E = slope of elastic portion of Stress-Strain curve

b) 250MPa GPa
•Close to 97 GPa
c) for Brass (from Table)

Tensile Strength (from graph)

d)

From Stress-Strain curve,

At stress = 345 MPa, strain = 0.06.
 Yield Strength (σy)
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred.

when e = 0.002 @ 0.2%

tensile stress,s
Elastic Plastic
sy
y = yield strength
P (yielding point)
Note: for 2 inch sample
 = 0.002 = z/z
0.002 Strain
Offset Method  z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
e = 0.002
A typical s-e behavior for metal showing elastic/plastic
deformation, proportional limit (P) & sY determined
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using 0.002 strain offset value.
 Yield Strength
At 0.2% strain, extrapolate line (dashed) parallel to OA till it
intersects stress-strain curve at A’

YS = 469 MPa

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 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
20 00
Steel (4140) qt

10 00
Yield strength, s y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
700 W (pure)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

600 Cu (71500) cw

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd
300 Room T values
,

Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
Hard to measure

200 Steel (1020) hr ¨

Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
40 PVC humid
PP
30 H DPE

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 36
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 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Neck – acts
Typical response of a metal
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
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 Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
(MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

A FRE (|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) aa C FRE (|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
strength, TS

Ti (pure) a Room Temp. values

200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a Si crystal
100 wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete PVC GFRE ( fiber)
PP C FRE ( fiber)
30
A FRE( fiber)
H DPE
20 Graphite
L DPE

10
Tensile

wood ( fiber)

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Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus (E) is material property.
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics

– Mean Standard Deviation

1
n n 2
 
2
 xn  x  x
x s i 
n  n 1 
 
where n is the number of data points

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 Exercise
The following tensile strengths were measured
for four specimens of the same steel alloy:
a) Compute the average tensile strength
b) Determine the standard deviation
Sample Number Tensile Strength
(MPa)
1 520
2 512
3 515
4 522
•a) 

b)
 Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
• Material that can subjected to
large strains before it ruptures
is called a ductile material.

Brittle Materials
• Materials that exhibit little or no
yielding before failure are
referred to as brittle materials.
 Ductility
• A measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture.
- can express as %EL (elongation) or %RA (reduction in area)
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: L - L
% EL = f o x 100 Lf = Fracture Length
L
o

smaller %EL
E ngineering (Brittle / low ductility)
tensile
Ao
stress, s larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(high ductility)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Ao - Af
• Another ductility measure: % RA = x 100
Ao
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 DUCTILITY -Toughness
• Toughness = Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

E ngineering small toughness (ceramics)

(Brittle)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s (Ductile)

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister 7e.
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture : elastic energy

Ductile fracture : elastic + plastic energy

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 (2.3) Hardness
• Def  a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation
eg small dent or scratch.

• Large hardness means:

--high resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
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 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

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 Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

hardening exponent:
sT = K
(eT) n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
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 (2.4) Design or Safety Factors
•Design uncertainties for actual stress in-service applications
• Need to consider Safety Factor, N.

y
Often N is

working 
between
Working stress, 1.2 and 4
N

•If N is too large will result component overdesign. Too much

material/alloy having a higher-than necessary strength will be used.

• Selection of N will depend on economics, experiences, mechanical

forces, material properties, etc.

• Failure design will consequence of loss of life and property

damage.
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 Design or Safety Factors
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the
1045 carbon steel rod below.
Use a factor of safety of 5.

d
y
working  1045 plain
N carbon steel:
s y = 310 MPa
Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa
 d 2 / 4 
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
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 EXERCISE 5
• A tensile testing is to be constructed that must withstand a
maximum load of 110 kN. The design calls for two cylindrical
support posts, each which is to half of the maximum load.
Furthermore, plain-carbon steel ground and polished shafting
rounds are to be used: the minimum yield of this alloy are 310
MPa respectively. Specify a suitable diameter for these
support posts. Use a suitable safety factor.
•  
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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