•

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 What is a Rock?

• Naturally-occurring mixtures
of minerals, glass or organic
matter.

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 What is a Rock?

• Rocks are divided into 3

groups based on how they
were formed:

• IGNEOUS
• SEDIMENTARY
• METAMORPHIC
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 • Rocks are continually changed by
many processes, such as
weathering, erosion, compaction,
cementation, melting, and cooling

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 • “Ignis” = Latin for “fire”

• Formed from the cooling of either magma or lava

• The most abundant type of rock

• Classified according to their origin and

composition
• RATE OF COOLING: most important factor that
control crystal size
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 MAGMA- MOLTEN ROCK MATERIAL BENEATH THE
EARTH’S SURFACE

LAVA- MOLTEN ROCK MATERIAL THAT EXPLODED

TO THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH THROUGH A
CENTRAL VENT

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 3.2 Igneous Rocks

Formation of Igneous Rocks

1.PLUTONIC / Intrusive igneous rocks - are
formed when magma hardens beneath
Earth’s surface.

2. VOLCANIC/ Extrusive igneous rocks are

formed when lava hardens.

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 ORIGIN— Where rocks are formed
• Below ground = from magma (intrusive igneous
rock)
• Usually have LARGE crystal grains (they cooled slowly)
• PHANERITIC TEXTURE

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 • Above ground = from lava (extrusive igneous
rock)
• Usually have SMALL or NO crystals (they cooled too
quickly)
• PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE

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 Igneous Rocks

• Types of igneous textures

– Fine-grained – fast rate of cooling
– Coarse-grained – slow rate of cooling
– Porphyritic (two crystal sizes) – two rates of cooling
– Glassy – very fast rate of cooling
– Vesicular – contains hole left by gas bubbles
– Pyroclastic – fragmented; produced by consolidation of
volcanic fragments

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 Fine-Grained Igneous Texture

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 Coarse-Grained Igneous Texture

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 Porphyritic Igneous Texture

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 Glassy Igneous Texture

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 Vesicular Igneous Texture

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 Pyroclastic Igneous Texture

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 Peridotite: Intrusive or Extrusive? Why?

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 Granite: Intrusive or Extrusive? Why?

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 Porphyry: Intrusive or Extrusive? Why?

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 Obsidian: Intrusive or Extrusive? Why?

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 Igneous Rocks

• Naming igneous rocks

– Granitic rocks
• Composed almost entirely of light-colored
silicates – quartz and feldspar
• Also referred to as felsic: feldspar and silica
(quartz)
• Common rock is granite

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 Granite and Granitic Rock

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 Igneous Rocks

• Naming igneous rocks

– Basaltic rocks
• Contain substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium-rich
plagioclase feldspar
• Also referred to as mafic: magnesium and ferrum (iron)
• Common rock is basalt

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 Basaltic Lava

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 Sedimentary Rocks

Economic importance
– Coal
– Petroleum and natural gas
– Sources of iron and aluminum

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 3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

 Compaction and Cementation
• Compaction is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments.

• Cementation takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in

the tiny spaces among the sediments.

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 3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

 Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
• Erosion involves the weathering and the removal of rock.

• Deposition occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind, ice, or

gravity—loses energy and drops sediments.

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 •Formed from sediments
(rock fragments, mineral
grains, animal & plant remains)
that are pressed or cemented
together or when sediments
precipitate out of a solution.

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 • These sediments are moved by wind, water,
ice or gravity.

• Sedimentary rocks are fossil-carrying rocks.

• FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGES

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 How can sedimentary layers help us
understand the age of fossils?

• As sedimentary rocks
are deposited, they
form horizontal
layers
• Scientists know that
the layers on top
(and the fossils in
the top layer) are
YOUNGER than the
fossils in lower
layers.
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 • The heavy sediments press down on the layers
beneath (compaction)

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 • Dissolved minerals flow between the particles
and cement them together (cementation)

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 Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Clastic (also called Detrial)—made of broken

pieces of other rocks

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 Shale with Plant Fossils

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 Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

2. Organic—remains of plants and animals

are deposited in thick layers
• Examples
• Fossil rich limestone is made from the
shells of ocean animals; used to make
chalk

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 Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
3. Chemical—Derived from material that was once
in solution and precipitates to form sediment
-minerals dissolved in lakes, seas, or
underground water

Mineral crystals are made as the shallow water that has

flooded the bottom of Death Valley evaporates.
Click on image for full size (66K JPG)
Courtesy of Martin Miller, University of Oregon
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 Examples
• Limestone
made when
calcite mineral
precipitates
from sea
water

• Rock Salt—
made from
evaporation of
sea waters

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 • Rocks that have changed due to intense
temperature and pressure
• “Meta” means “change” and morphosis means
“form” in Greek
• Igneous, sedimentary and other metamorphic
rocks can change to become metamorphic rocks

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 3.4 Metamorphic Rocks

Agents of Metamorphism
 Heat
• Provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions

 Pressure
• Causes a more compact rock with greater density

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 Metamorphic Grade

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 Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphic settings
– Contact, or thermal, metamorphism
• Occurs near a body of magma
• Changes are driven by a rise in temperature

– Regional metamorphism
• Directed pressures and high temperatures during mountain
building
• Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock

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 How are metamorphic rocks
classified?
• Non-Foliated—No bands are formed

• Example: marble formed from limestone

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 FOLIATED:
MINERAL GRAINS ARE FLATTENED AND
LINE UP IN PARALLEL BANDS

EX: GRANITE-GNEISS

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 Development of Foliation due to Directed
Pressure

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 What is the process through which rocks
change?
• The Rock Cycle—
-Process that rocks undergo to transform them
to one type to another
-earth materials change back and forth among
the different types of rocks

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 How are rocks redistributed?

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 3.1 The Rock Cycle

Energy That Drives the Rock Cycle

 Processes driven by heat from the Earth’s interior
are responsible for forming both igneous rock and
metamorphic rock.
 Weathering and the movement of weathered
materials are external processes powered by
energy from the sun.
 External processes produce sedimentary rocks.

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 Resources from Rocks and Minerals

• Metallic mineral resources

– Gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, etc.
– Concentrations of desirable materials are produced by
• Igneous processes
• Metamorphic processes

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 Resources from Rocks and Minerals

• Metallic mineral resources

– Most important ore deposits are generated from
hydrothermal (hot-water) solutions
• Hot
• Contain metal-rich fluids
• Associated with cooling magma bodies

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 Resources from Rocks and Minerals

• Pegmatites
– Result from crystallization in fluid-rich environment
– Unusually large crystals

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 Resources from Rocks and Minerals

• Types of deposits include

– Vein deposits in fractures or bedding planes, and
– Disseminated deposits which are distributed throughout
the rock

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 Metallic Resources

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 Resources from Rocks and Minerals

• Nonmetallic mineral resources

– Make use of the material’s
• Nonmetallic elements
• Physical or chemical properties
– Two broad groups
• Building materials (e.g., limestone, gypsum)
• Industrial minerals (e.g., fluorite, corundum, sylvite)

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 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

• Coal
– Burns energy stored by plants millions of years ago
– Air pollution
– Surface scarring

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 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

• Oil and Natural Gas

– More than 60% of U.S.-consumed energy
– Remains of marine plants and animals
– Source rock – where oil and natural gas originate
– Oil trap – geologic environment allowing oil and gas to
accumulate

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 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

• Oil trap – two basic features

– Reservoir rock
• Porous and permeable
• Yields oil and gas in significant quantities
– Cap rock
• Impermeable
• Keeps oil and gas from surface escape

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 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

• Common oil and natural gas traps

– Anticline – up-arched sedimentary strata
– Fault trap – displaced strata
– Salt dome – includes layers of rock salt
– Stratigraphic (pinchout) trap – original sedimentation
pattern

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 Common Oil Traps

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 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

• Hydraulic Fracturing
– “Fracking”
– Shatters shale with significant gas and petroleum reserves
– Pumping liquids into rock at very high pressure
– Can include toxic chemicals

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