Semiconductor Diode

Introduction
Resistancesof Crystal Diodes
Equivalent Circuit of Diodes or Diode Models
Examples
Introduction
It has already been discussed in the previous chapter that a pn
junction conducts current easily when forward biased and
practically no current flows when it is reverse biased.
This unilateral conduction characteristic of pn junction (i.e.
semiconductor diode) is similar to that of a vacuum diode.
Therefore, like a vacuum diode, a semiconductor diode can
also accomplish the job of rectification i.e. change alternating
current to direct current.
A PN junction is known as a semi-conductor or crystal
diode.
The outstanding property of a crystal diode to conduct
current in one direction only permits it to be used as a
rectifier.
A crystal diode is usually represented by the schematic
symbol shown in Fig.
A crystal diode has two terminals. When it is connected in
a circuit, one thing to decide is whether the diode is
forward or reverse biased.
Example
In each diode of figure , find whether the diode is
forward bias or reverse bias
 (i) The conventional current coming out of battery flows in the branch circuits. In
diode D1, the conventional current flows in the direction of arrowhead and hence
this diode is forward biased. However, in diode D2,the conventional current flows
opposite to arrowhead and hence this diode is reverse biased.
 (ii) During the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the conventional current
flows in the direction of arrowhead and hence diode is forward biased. However,
during the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode is reverse biased.
 (iii) During the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, conventional current flows
in the direction of arrowhead in D1 but it flows opposite to arrowhead in D2.
Therefore, during positive half-cycle, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2
reverse biased. However, during the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, diode
D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased.
 (iv) During the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, both the diodes are reverse
biased. However, during the negative half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, both the
diodes are forward biased.
Diode Models
Recall that a diode is forward-biased when a voltage source is
connected as shown in Figure .The positive terminal of the source
is connected to the anode through a current-limiting resistor.
A diode is reverse-biased when a voltage source is connected as
shown in Figure ,The negative terminal of the source is connected
to the anode side of the circuit, and the positive terminal is
connected to the cathode side. A resistor is not necessary in
reverse bias but it is shown for circuit consistency.
The reverse current is extremely small and can be considered to
be zero. Notice that the entire bias voltage (VBIAS) appears
across the diode.
Diode Approximation

The Ideal Diode Model The ideal model of a diode is the least
accurate approximation and can be represented by a simple
switch.
When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on)
switch, as shown in figure
During the reverse bias condition the diode work as off switch
Although the barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance,
and the reverse current are all neglected, this model is adequate
for most troubleshooting when you are trying to determine if the
diode is working properly.
The ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal
diode operation. Since the barrier potential and the forward
dynamic resistance are neglected, the diode is assumed to have a
zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the
portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis.
VF=0V
Forward Current Determined by If= VBIAS/Rlimit.
Reverse current neglected its value assumed to be zero IR=0.
Reverse voltage is VR=Vbias.
You may want to use the ideal model when you are
troubleshooting or trying to figure out the operation of a circuit
and are not concerned with more exact values of voltage or
current.
The Practical Diode Model
 The practical model includes the barrier potential. When the diode is
forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a
small equivalent voltage source (VF) equal to the barrier potential
(0.7 V) with the positive side toward the anode, as shown in figure .
 This equivalent voltage source represents the barrier potential that
must be exceeded by the bias voltage before the diode will conduct
and is not an active source of voltage. When conducting, a voltage
drop of 0.7 V appears across the diode.
 When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch
just as in the ideal model, as shown in Figure The barrier potential
does not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forward-
biased, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the
origin.
VF=0.7V
The forward current is determined as follows by first applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
Vbias-VF-Vrlimit=0
◦ Vrlimit =IFRlimit
Solving for IF= Vbias-Vf/Rlimit
The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the
portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
IR=0V , Vr=VBias
The Complete Diode Model
The complete model of a diode is the most accurate
approximation and includes the barrier potential, the small
forward dynamic resistance (rd’) and the large internal reverse
resistance (rR’).
The reverse resistance is taken into account because it provides a
path for the reverse current, which is included in this diode model.
When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in
series with the equivalent barrier potential voltage (VB) and the
small forward dynamic resistance as indicated in Figure
 When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel
with the large internal reverse resistance as shown in Figure.
 The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
 The characteristic curve for the complete diode model is shown in
Figure, Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance
are included, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when
forward-biased.
 This voltage (VF) consists of the barrier potential voltage plus the
small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by the
portion of the curve to the right of the origin. The curve slopes
because the voltage drop due to dynamic resistance increases as the
current increases. For the complete model of a silicon diode, the
following formulas apply
 VF=0.7V +Ifrd’
Resistance of Crystal Diode
It is already discussed that in the forward bias the diode
conducts and in the reverse bias diode does not conduct.
It means that forward resistance of a diode is quite small
as compared with its reverse resistance.
Forward Resistance: The resistance offered by the diode
to forward bias is known as forward resistance.
Accordingly; this resistance is of two types, namely;
D.c. forward resistance and A.c. forward resistance.
DC and AC Resistance
D.C Forward Resistance: It is the opposition offered by the diode
to the direct current. It is measured by the ratio of d.c. voltage
across the diode to the resulting d.c. current through it.
 d.c. forward resistance, Rf =OA/OB
A.C Forward Resistance: It is the opposition offered by the diode
to the changing forward current. It is measured by the ratio of
change in voltage across diode to the resulting change in current
through it
Change in voltage across diode/Corresponding change in current
through diode.
The a.c. forward resistance is more significant as the diodes are
generally used wit alternating voltages.
If P is the operating point at any instant, then forward voltage is
ob and forward current is oe.
It may be mentioned here that forward resistance of a crystal
diode is very small, ranging from 1 to 25 Ω.
Reverse Resistance: The resistance offered by the diode to the
reverse bias is known as reverse resistance.
It can be d.c. reverse resistance or a.c. reverse resistance
depending upon whether the reverse bias is direct or changing
voltage.
Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is infinite. In practice, the
reverse resistance is not infinite because for any value of reverse
bias, there does exist a small leakage current.
DC and AC Resistance
It may be emphasized here that reverse resistance is very
large compared to the forward resistance.
In germanium diodes, the ratio of reverse to forward
resistance is 40000 : 1 while for silicon this ratio is
1000000 : 1.
Equivalent Circuits of Diodes
It is generally profitable to replace a device or system by
its equivalent circuit.
An equivalent circuit of a device (e.g. crystal diode,
transistor etc.) is a combination of electric elements,
which when connected in a circuit, acts exactly as does
the device when connected in the same circuit.
Once the device is replaced by its equivalent circuit, the
resulting network can be solved by traditional circuit
analysis techniques.
Approximate Equivalent circuit
When the forward voltage VF is applied across a diode, it
will not conduct till the potential barrier V0 at the
junction is overcome.
When the forward voltage exceeds the potential barrier
voltage, the diode starts conducting as shown in Fig.
The forward current If flowing through the diode causes
a voltage drop in its internal resistance rf .
Therefore, the forward voltage VF applied across the
actual diode has to overcome.
Potential Barrier , internal drop If rf.
VF = V0 + If rf
For a silicon diode, V0 = 0.7 V whereas for a germanium
diode, V0 = 0.3 V.
Therefore, approximate equivalent circuit for a crystal diode
is a switch in series with a battery V0 and internal resistance
rf as shown in Fig.
This approximate equivalent circuit of a diode is very helpful
in studying the performance of the diode in a circuit.
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
For most applications, the internal resistance rf of the crystal
diode can be ignored in comparison to other elements in the
equivalent circuit.
The equivalent circuit then reduces to the one shown in Fig. This
simplified equivalent circuit of the crystal diode is frequently
used in diode-circuit analysis.
Ideal Diode Model
An ideal diode is one which behaves as a perfect conductor
when forward biased and as a perfect insulator when reverse
biased.
Obviously, in such a hypothetical situation, forward
resistance rf=0 and potential barrier V0 is considered
negligible.
Although ideal diode is never found in practice, yet diode
circuit analysis is made on this basis.
Therefore, while discussing diode circuits, the diode will be
assumed ideal unless and until stated otherwise.
Crystal Diode Equivalent Circuits
Important Terms
Forward Current: “Current flow in the forward Bias , Diode
has current values that diode can handle or withstand easily , if
this value is exceeds diode may be destroyed. For this reason
manufacturer provide the data sheet for the forward current.”
Peak Inverse Voltage: “Maximum reverse voltage that a diode
can withstand without destroying the junction.”
PIV is extremely important when diode used as rectifier.
It must be ensure that reverse voltage across the diode does not
exceeds PIV during negative Half Cycle.
Reverse Current or Leakage Current: “it is current that
flow through the reverse bias”
Under normal operating voltages, the reverse current is
quite small. Its value is extremely small (< 1μ A) for
silicon diodes but it is appreciable (100 μA) for
germanium diodes.
The forward current for a typical diode might range upto
100 mA while the reverse current might be only a few μA
—a ratio of many thousands between forward and reverse
currents.
Crystal Diode Rectifier
With economics of generation and transmission, the
electric power available is usually an AC supply.
When such a d.c. supply is required, the mains a.c.
supply is rectified by using crystal diodes.
The following two rectifier circuits can be used
(i) Half-wave rectifier (ii) Full-wave rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier
In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current
only during the positive half-cycles of input AC. supply.
The negative half-cycles of AC supply are suppressed i.e.
during negative half-cycles, no current is conducted and
hence no voltage appears across the load.
Therefore, current always flows in one direction (i.e.
d.c.) through the load though after every half-cycle.
Circuit Explanation
The AC supply to be rectified is applied in series with the
diode and load resistance RL.
Generally, AC supply is given through a transformer.
The use of transformer permits two advantages.
Firstly, it allows us to step up or step down the AC input
voltage as the situation demands. Secondly, the
transformer isolates the rectifier circuit from power line
and thus reduces the risk of electric shock.
Operation
The AC. voltage across the secondary winding AB changes
polarities after every half-cycle. During the positive half-
cycle of input AC voltage, end A becomes positive w.r.t end
B.
This makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts
current.
During the negative half-cycle, end A is negative w.r.t. end B.
Under this condition, the diode is reverse biased and it
conducts no current. Therefore, current flows through the
diode during positive half-cycles of input a.c. voltage only.
it is blocked during the negative half-cycles.
In this way, current flows through load RL always in the same
direction. Hence d.c. output is obtained across RL. It may be
noted that output across the load is pulsating d.c. These pulsations
in the output are further smoothened with the help of filter
circuits.
Disadvantages:
The pulsating current in the load contains alternating component
whose basic frequency is equal to the supply frequency.
Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady
direct current.
The AC. supply delivers power only half the time. Therefore, the
output is low.
Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier
Theratio of d.c. power output to the applied input a.c. power is
known as rectifier efficiency.
Ƞ= Dc Power Output/ Input Ac Power.
Consider a Half wave rectifier as shown in figure
Full Wave Rectifier
In full-wave rectification, current flows through the load in
the same direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage.
This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately.
For the positive half cycle of input voltage, one diode
supplies current to the load
for the negative half-cycle, the other diode does so current
being always in the same direction through the load.
Therefore, a full-wave rectifier utilises both half-cycles of
input AC voltage to produce the DC output.
The following two circuits are
commonly used for full-wave
rectification :
(i) Centre-tap full-wave rectifier
(ii) Full-wave bridge rectifier
Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
The circuit employs two diodes D1 and D2 as shown in
Fig.
A centre tapped secondary winding AB is used with two
diodes connected so that each uses one half-cycle of
input AC voltage.
In other words, diode D1 utilises the AC voltage
appearing across the upper half (OA) of secondary
winding for rectification
while diode D2 uses the lower half winding OB.
Operation
 During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the
secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the
diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased.
 Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. The conventional
current flow is through diode D1, load resistor RL and the upper half of
secondary winding as shown by the dotted arrows.
 During the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary winding becomes
negative and end B positive. Therefore, diode D2 conducts while diode D1
does not.
 The conventional current flow is through diode D2, load RL and lower half
winding as shown by solid arrows. Referring to Fig.
 It may be seen that current in the load RL is in the same direction for both
half-cycles of input AC voltage. Therefore, DC is obtained across the load
RL. Also, the polarities of the DC output across the load should be noted.
Peak Inverse Voltage
Suppose Vm is the maximum voltage across the half secondary
winding. Fig. shows the circuit at the instant secondary voltage
reaches its maximum value in the positive direction.
At this instant, diode D1 is conducting while diode D2 is non-
conducting. Therefore, whole of the secondary voltage appears
across the non-conducting diode. Consequently, the peak inverse
voltage is twice the maximum voltage across the half-secondary
winding i.e.
PIV = 2 Vm
Disadvantages
It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding.
The DC output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the
transformer secondary voltage.
The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The need for a centre tapped power transformer is eliminated in
the bridge rectifier. It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4
connected to form bridge as shown in Fig.
Operation
During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end
P of the secondary winding becomes positive and end Q
negative.
This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward biased. While diodes
D2 and D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. These two diodes
will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig.
The conventional current flow is shown by dotted arrows. It
may be seen that current flows from A to B through the load
RL .
During the negative half-cycle of secondary voltage, end P
becomes negative and end Q positive. This makes diodes D2
and D4 forward biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse
biased.
Therefore, only diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes
will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig.
The current flow is shown by the solid arrows. It may be seen
that again current flows from A to B through the load i.e. in
the same direction as for the positive half-cycle.
Therefore, DC output is obtained across load RL.
Peak Inverse Voltage
 The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode is equal to the maximum secondary
voltage of transformer. Suppose during positive half cycle of input AC, end P of
secondary is positive and end Q negative. Under such conditions, diodes D1 and D3
are forward biased
 while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Since the diodes are considered ideal,
diodes D1 and D3 can be replaced by wires as shown in Fig. 6.28 (i). This circuit is
the same as shown in Fig. 6.28 (ii).
 it is clear that two reverse biased diodes (i.e., D2 and D4) and the secondary of
transformer are in parallel. Hence PIV of each diode (D2 and D4) is equal to the
maximum voltage (Vm) across the secondary.
 Similarly, during the next half cycle, D2 and D4 are forward biased while D1 and
D3 will be reverse biased. It is easy to see that reverse voltage across D1 and D3 is
equal to Vm.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated.
 The output is twice that of the centre-tap circuit for the same secondary
voltage.
 The PIV is one-half that of the centre-tap circuit (for same d.c. output).
 Disadvantages
 It requires four diodes.
 As during each half-cycle of AC input two diodes that conduct are in
series, therefore, voltage drop in the internal resistance of the rectifying
unit will be twice as great as in the centre tap circuit.
 This is objectionable when secondary voltage is small.
Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier
D.C output power. The output current is pulsating direct
current. Therefore, in order to find the d.c. power, average current
has to be found out. From the elementary knowledge of electrical
engineering.
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to
RL.
Maximum efficiency = 81.2%
This is double the efficiency due to half-wave rectifier. Therefore,
a full-wave rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.
Nature of Rectifier Output
It has already been discussed that the output of a rectifier
is pulsating DC as shown in Fig
In fact, if such a waveform Is carefully analysed, it will
be found that it contains a DC component and an AC
component.
The AC component is responsible for the pulsations in
the wave.
The fact that a pulsating DC contains both DC and AC
components can be beautifully illustrated by referring to Fig.
6.38. Fig. shows a pure DC component, whereas Fig. shows the
AC component.
If these two waves are added together, the resulting wave will be
as shown in Fig. 6.38 (iii).
It follows, therefore, that a pulsating output of a rectifier contains
a d.c. component and an a.c. component.
Ripple Factor
The output of a rectifier consists of a DC component and
an AC component (also known as ripple).
The AC component is undesirable and accounts for the
pulsations in the rectifier output.
The effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the
magnitude of AC component in the output.
The smaller this component, the more effective is the
rectifier.
 The ratio of r.m.s. value of a.c. component to the d.c.
component in the rectifier output is known The ratio of
r.m.s. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in
the rectifier output is known as ripple factor i.e.
Ripple Factor is given by
Ripple factor is very important in deciding the
effectiveness of a rectifier.
The smaller the ripple factor, the lesser the effective AC.
component and hence more effective is the rectifier.
Mathematical Analysis
The output current of a rectifier contains d.c. as well as
AC. component.
The undesired AC component has a frequency of
100 Hz (i.e. double the supply frequency 50 Hz) and Is
called the ripple.
It is a fluctuation superimposed on the DC component.
Ripple Factor Derivation
By definition, the effective (i.e. r.m.s.) value of total load
current is given by
Comparison of Rectifier Circuits
Filter Circuits
 Generally, a rectifier is required to produce pure DC supply for
using at various places in the electronic circuits.
 However, the output of a rectifier has pulsating character i.e. it
contains AC and DC components. The AC component is
undesirable and must be kept away from the load.
 filter circuit is used which removes (or filters out) the AC
component and allows only the DC component to reach the load.
 “A filter circuit is a device which removes the AC component of
rectifier output but allows the DC component to reach the load.”
A filter circuit should be installed between the rectifier and the load
as shown in Fig.
A filter circuit is generally a combination of inductors (L) and
capacitors (C).
The filtering action of L and C depends upon the basic electrical
principles.
A capacitor passes AC readily but does not pass DC at all.
On the other hand, an inductor(L) opposes AC but allows DC to
pass through it.
From above discussion it is clear that suitable network of L and C
can effectively remove the AC component, allowing the DC
component to reach the load.
 Type of Filter Circuits
most commonly used filter circuits are capacitor filter,
choke input filter and capacitor input filter or π -filter.
We shall discuss these filters in turn.
Capacitor Filter: It consists of a capacitor C placed across
the rectifier output in parallel with load RL.
The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier is applied
across the capacitor.
As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor
and also supplies current to the load.
At the end of quarter cycle, capacitor is charged to the
peak value Vm of the rectifier voltage.
Now, the rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As this
occurs, the capacitor discharges through the load and
voltage across it (i.e. across parallel combination of R-C)
decreases as shown by the line AB in Fig.
The voltage across load will decrease only slightly because
immediately the next voltage peak comes and recharges the
capacitor.
This process is repeated again and again and the output voltage
waveform becomes ABCDEFG.
It may be seen that very little ripple is left in the output. Moreover,
output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak
value of rectifier output voltage.
The capacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low
cost, small size, little weight and good characteristics.
For small load currents (say upto 50 mA), this type of filter is
preferred.
It is commonly used in transistor radio battery eliminators.