BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

Lecture # 9
Chapter 3
Mechanical Properties of Matter
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Fluid Flow and Continuity

Fluid flow through a pipe of varying diameter, As a fluid flows from a

large pipe to a small pipe, the same mass of fluid passes a given point in
a given amount of time. Thus, the speed in the small pipe is greater
than it is in the large pipe.
Equation of Continuity
1 A1v1   2 A2 v2
Most liquids are practically incompressible, so their densities are
essentially constant, ρ1=ρ2.

A1v1  A2 v2
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Bernoulli's Equation
It is a relation between the pressure of a fluid, its speed, and its
height.

1 2 1 2
P1  v1  P2  v2
2 2
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Change in Height

P1  gy1  P2  gy2

General Case
In a more general case, both the height of a fluid and its speed
may change. Combining the results obtained in the last two
equations yields the full form of Bernoulli’s equation:

1 2 1 2
P1  v1  gy1  P2  v2  gy2
2 2
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Applications of Bernoulli's Equation

Blowing across the top of the paper reduces the pressure there, resulting
in a net upward force which lifts the paper to a nearly horizontal position.

Cross section of an airplane wing with air flowing past it. The wing is
shaped so that air flows more rapidly over the top of the wing than
along the bottom. As a result, the pressure on top of the wing is
reduced, and a net upward force (lift) is generated.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Example 3-4:
During a windstorm, a 35.5 m/s wind blows across the flat roof
of a small home, as in the figure. Find the difference in pressure
between the air inside the home and the air just above the roof,
assuming the doors and windows of the house are closed. (The
density of air is 1.29 Kg/m3).
Solution
Use Bernoulli’s equation with point 1
just under the roof and point 2 just
above the roof. Since there is little
difference in elevation between these
points, y1=y2=y Thus,
1 2
P1  0  gy  P2  v2  gy
2
Solving for the pressure difference, P1-P2 we find

1
P1  P2  (1.29 Kg / m3 )(35.5m / s ) 2  813Pa
2
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
The Role of Gravity in the Circulation

When animals evolved to the point where they spent a

significant amount of time standing upright, a surprising
number of changes in the circulatory system were required. Of
particular importance is the venous system used to return blood
from the lower extremities to the heart. Humans have adapted
to the problems of moving blood upward a large distance
against the force of gravity. Animals that have not, such as
snakes, eels, and even rabbits, will die if held head upwards; the
blood remains in the lower extremities and the heart receives
no blood from the venous system. The following figure shows
what is observed if a person’s large arteries are cannulated.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

Schematic view of the results of cannulation of arteries in

various parts of the human body when standing and reclining.
The pressures shown are averaged over the heart cycle.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Since the viscous effects are small, we can use Bernoulli's equation
1 2
P1  v1  gy1  const.
2

The velocities in the three arteries are small and roughly equal,
so the 1 v 2 term can be ignored. Hence the gauge pressures at
2
the heart PH, at the foot PF, and at the brain PB are related by;

PF  PH  ghH  PB  ghB
Where ρ is the density of blood

This situation poses several problems. The most important are the
tendency for blood to drain out of the venous side of the upper body back
to the heart and the difficulty of lifting blood from the lower extremities
up to the heart.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
To retard drainage from the brain where constant volume and flow
rate are extremely important, the muscles surrounding the veins
contract and cause constriction.
In the lower extremities, because the veins have a much larger
capacity for passive expansion and blood storage than do arteries,
the problem is to pump the blood “uphill”. The veins in the
extremities contain valves that open when blood flows toward the
heart and close if the blood moves away from the heart. Blood is
returned to the heart, at least partially, by the pumping action
associated with breathing and by the flexing of skeletal muscle, as
in walking. These muscle contractions squeeze the veins, and the
valves ensure that the resultant blood flow is toward the heart.
The importance of this is illustrated by the fact that a soldier who
is required to stand at strict attention may faint because of
insufficient venous return. Once horizontal, the pressures are
equalized, and the soldier regains consciousness.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Effects of Acceleration
When a person in an erect position experiences an upward
acceleration a, the effective weight becomes m(g+a). Applying
Bernoulli’s equation to the brain and the heart with g replaced
by (g+a).

PB   ( g  a )hB  PH   ( g  a )hH
PB  PH   ( g  a )(hB  hH )
Thus the blood pressure in the brain will be reduced even further.
A related experience is the feeling of light-headedness that
sometimes occurs when one suddenly stands up. Since muscular
movement is required to activate the venous return mechanism,
blood will tend to collect in the lower veins until normal activity is
resumed.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Blood pressure measurements

Blood pressures are usually presented as systolic/diastolic ratios.

Typical readings for a resting healthy adult are about 120/80 in
Torr and 16/11 in Kpa. The borderline for high blood pressure
(hypertension) is usually defined to be 140/90 in Torr and 19/12 in
KPa. Pressures appreciably above that level requires medical
attention, because prolonged high blood pressure can lead to serious
damage of the heart and other organs before a person is aware of
any problem.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
II. The Mechanics of Viscous Fluid Flow
Real fluids in motion always exhibit some effects of frictional or
viscous forces. For this case, Bernoulli’s equation can not be used
since it applies only for fluids where viscous forces have no
effect. For example, Bernoulli’s equation can adequately describe
the flow of blood in the large main arteries of a mammals, but not
in the narrower blood vessels (capillaries).

We will begin this part by defining the Viscosity of a fluid then

we examine the effects of viscous forces on the flow of a fluid in
a tube. Viscosity is responsible for the drag force experienced
by a small object moving slowly through a fluid. Consequently
viscous forces determine the velocities of molecules and small
particles in solution in a centrifuge.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
Viscosity:
A fluid flowing past a stationary surface experiences a
force opposing the flow. This tendency to resist flow is
referred to as the viscosity of a fluid.
Fluids like air have low viscosities, thicker fluids like
water are more viscous, and fluids like honey and motor
oil are characterized by high viscosity.
If the fluid were ideal, with zero viscosity, it would
flow through the tube with a speed that is the same
throughout the fluid. Real fluids with finite viscosity
are found to have flow patterns like the one shown in
the Figure.
The unit of the coefficient of viscosity is “poise” in c.g.s system,
dyne.sec/cm2. 1 poise = 1 dyne.sec/cm2= 1 gm/cm.sec
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
The flow of a fluid through a tube

(a) An ideal fluid flows through a tube with a speed that is the
same everywhere in the fluid.

(b) In a fluid with finite viscosity, the speed of the fluid goes to
zero on the walls of the tube and reaches its maximum value in
the center of the tube. The average speed of the fluid depends
on the pressure difference between the ends of the tube, P1-P2,
the length of the tube, L, the cross-sectional area of the tube,
A, and the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid, η.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
The force causing a viscous fluid to flow is provided by the pressure
difference, across a given length, L, of tube. Experiments show that
the required pressure difference is proportional to the length of
the tube and to the average speed, v, of the fluid. In addition, it is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A, of the tube.
Combining these observations, the pressure difference can be
written in the following form:
vL
P1  P2 
A

The constant of proportionality between the pressure difference

and vL/A is related to the coefficient of viscosity, η, of a fluid.
In fact, the viscosity is defined in such a way that the pressure
difference is given by the following expression:
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO
vL
P1  P2  8
A
This equation is named after the French physiologist Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille (1799–1869).
The viscosity of a liquid is generally measured by observing the
time required for a definite volume of a liquid to move or flow
through a standard capillary tube.

  P r t 4

Where: 8 V  L
V: the liquid volume.
L: the capillary tube length.
r: the radius of the capillary.
P: the pressure which affects the liquid flowing.
t: the flowing time of the liquid.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

Example 3–5:
Blood Speed in the Pulmonary Artery
The pulmonary artery, which connects the heart to the lungs, is
8.5 cm long and has a pressure difference over this length of 450
Pa. If the inside radius of the artery is 2.4 mm, what is the
average speed of blood in the pulmonary artery?
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

Solution
vL
The average speed of the blood can be found by using P1  P2  8
A
Note that the pressure difference, is given as 450 Pa = 450
N/m2, and that the cross-sectional area of the blood vessel is A   r2

The average speed, v, can be calculated from the relation,

( P1  P2 ) A
v
8L
By substitution by the value of A; and cancel from the numerator
and denominator we get the following,

( P1  P2 )r 2
v
8L
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

By substitution by the numerical values;

(450 Pa )(0.0024 m) 2
v 2
 1.4 m / s
8(0.00272 N .s / m )(0.085)

Insight
The viscosity of blood increases rapidly with its hematocrit
value; that is, with the concentration of red blood cells in the
whole blood. Thus, thick blood, with a high hematocrit value,
requires a significantly larger pressure difference for a given
rate of blood flow. This higher pressure must be provided by the
heart, which consequently works harder with each beat.
 BADR UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO

Thank You For Your

Attention