INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY
PSYC106 Lecture 1
 EXPLAINING SCIENTIFIC
PSYCHOLOGY
• Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
• Definition of Science & Psychology
• The Scientific Approach
• The SOCIAL LOAFING Phenomenon
• THEORY vs. DATA
• INDUCTION and DEDUCTION
• Evaluating Theories
• Formulating HYPOTHESIS from a THEORY
 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
• DIFFERENT APPROACHES USED IN OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE

1. AUTHORITY – we believe something because it was taught to us by figures of

authority (religious beliefs, superstition, folklore, taboo)
2. TENACITY – when one refused to alter acquired knowledge regardless of
evidence to contrary (stereotypes, personal interpretation)
3. A PRIORI – something that is believed by many without prior study or
examination
4. INTUITION – an approach to acquiring knowledge that is not based on reasoning
or inferring
 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
• DIFFERENT APPROACHES USED IN OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE

5. RATIONALISM – the acquisition of knowledge through reasoning

6. EMPIRICISM – the acquisition of knowledge through experience

7. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH – can be explained by the concept of deteminism -

observable causes determine events
“events have causes and we can know these causes through controlled observation”
 DEFINING SCIENCE & PSYCHOLOGY
SCIENCE PSYCHOLOGY
- A systematically organized body of • The scientific study of human behavior and
knowledge about the world through mental processes
experimentation and observation • The science of studying a person’s
(McGuigan) AFFECT (emotions), BEHAVIOR (actions)
- Knowledge is formed through the scientific and COGNITIONS (thought process)
method
- Looking at solvable problems and
obtaining solutions by studying observable
events
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
• DETERMINISM – observable causes determine events

• SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY – a repeatable, self correcting undertaking that seeks to understand

phenomena on the basis of empirical observation

• EMPIRICAL – from the Greek word, “experience”, systematic observation

- experience, rather than faith, is the source of knowledge
• SELF CORRECTING – through repeated observation & experimentation, new beliefs can be
compared to old beliefs on the basis of empirical facts
- people have conflicting opinions, the scientific method can attempt to reconcile those since
anyone can make empirical observations
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
• Science – a process or method for generating a body of knowledge
STEPS:
• Identifying a Problem & Forming a Hypothesis
• Designing the Experiment
• Conducting the Experiment
• Testing the Hypothesis
• Communicating the Research Results
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
OBSERVE  HYPOTHESIZE  TEST  INFER  MODEL-THEORIZE
 PREDICT  TEST  REORGANIZE

THE SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION PROCESS SHOULD BE:

1. Empirical – based on experimentation & observation
2. Public – any observer must be able to observe the phenomenon / is transparent
3. Repeatable – can be REPLICATED
 EXPLAINING THE RELATIONSHIP
OF THEORY AND DATA:
THE SOCIAL LOAFING PHENOMENON

THEORY
• A set of related statements that explains a
variety of occurrences
• The more the occurrences, the fewer the
statements = the better the theory
• Organization of concepts that permit
prediction of data
• A theory is tested if it applies to observable
events
THEORY VS. DATA
DATA
• Facts and statistics collected together for
reference or analysis.
• Facts about something that can be used in
calculating, reasoning or planning
• They are usually based on empirical
evidence or observation
• Data is collected to prove or disprove a
theory or establish new theories
 FUNCTIONS OF A THEORY
1. ORGANIZE DATA – provides a framework for the systematic and orderly
display of data
- like a “filing system” to help experimenters organize results
2. GENERATE PREDICTIONS – for situations in which no data has been obtained
- the greater the degree of precision of these predictions = the better
the theory is

*The issue with theories in psychology is that they are more often verbal & less precise
compared to theories in natural sciences (e.g. physics) wherein are better quantified in
mathematical equations
 FUNCTIONS OF A THEORY
• Theories are devised to organize concepts and facts into a coherent pattern and to predict
additional observations
• Sometimes, these 2 functions are also called:
ORGANIZATION = DESCRIPTION ; PREDICTION = EXPLANATION
• Both are equally important
• Theories bridge the gap between knowledge and ignorance
• Theories, however, will never be complete / perfect because all data will never be available
 INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION
INDUCTIVE REASONING DEDUCTIVE REASONING
• Focuses more on DATA • Relies heavily on THEORY
• Qualitative Approach – investigating • Quantitative Approach – experimentation,
behavior through the use of interview, correlation, small N designs
survey, observations • Reasoning proceeds from general theory to
• Reasoning proceeds from particular data to predicting data
general theory
 A THEORY ORGANIZES AND PREDICTS
DATA

THEORY

INDUCTION DEDUCTION

DATA

By means of deduction, particular observation (data) may be predicted.

By means of Induction, the data suggest organizing principle or theories.
The circular relationship indicates that theories are tentative pictures of how data are organized
 INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION
• Science needs and uses both data and theory
• Some have argued about which is more important or which comes first.
• The primacy of data / observation:
• “observations and results of experiments are said to be data, which provide a sound and solid
base for the erection of the fragile edifice of scientific thought” (Harre, 1983, p.6)
• On the other hand,
• Deductive approach argues that “a theory will predict the certain kinds of empirical
observation”
 EVALUATING THEORIES
1. PARSIMONY – the fewer the statements in the theory, the better the theory
2. PRECISION – different investigators can agree about its predictions
3. TESTABILITY – a theory that cannot be tested, can never be disproved
-Belief in a theory increases as it survives tests that could reject it
4. ABILITY TO FIT DATA – a theory must fit the data it explains
 FROM THEORY TO HYPOTHESIS
• Theories cannot be tested directly, instead scientists conduct experiment to test hypotheses
that are derived from a theory

• HYPOTHESIS vs. GENERALIZATIONS

- A Hypothesis is a very specific, testable statement that can be evaluated from observable
data
- E.g. “Older drivers (65 yo & older) would have a higher frequency of accidents involving
left turns when driving at night than younger drivers”
- A Generalization, in contrast, is a broader statement that cannot be tested directly
- E.g. “older drivers are unsafe at any speed and should have restrictions on their driver’s
license”
 FROM THEORY TO HYPOTHESIS
• Each Generalization can produce more than one hypothesis
• SOURCES OF GENERALIZATIONS
1. From Experience (inductive process) aka common-sense hypothesis
- you have encountered problems with an older driver
2. From Theory (deductive process) – more preferred by most psychologists
- theories of attention, perception, decision making

An advantage of a good theory is that it produces many generalizations