Economic Geology: Introduction and scope

- Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that

can be used for economic and/or industrial purposes.

- These materials include precious and base metals, non-

metallic minerals, construction-grade stone, petroleum, coal
and water.

- The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits

and mineral resources.

- The techniques employed by other earth science

disciplines (such as geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics, and
structural geology) might all be used to understand, describe,
and exploit an ore deposit.
- Economic geology is studied and practiced by
geologists.

- However, it is of prime interest to investors, stock analysts

and other professions such as engineers, environmental
scientists, and conservationists because of the far- reaching
impact that extractive industries have on society, the
economy, and the environment.
 Ore: An ore is defined as a mineral or an aggregate of minerals
from which a valuable constituent, especially a metal, can be
profitably mined or extracted.

- It is an aggregate of economically important minerals

that is sufficiently rich to separate for a profit.

- Although more than 3,500 mineral species are known,

only about 100 are considered ore minerals.

- The term originally applied only to metallic minerals (see

native element) but now includes such nonmetallic substances
as sulfur, calcium fluoride (fluorite), and barium sulfate (
barite) etc.
-
- It is a mineral occurring in sufficient quantity and
containing enough metal to permit its recovery and
extraction at a profit. The term is also applied to rock
containing such a mineral or metal, as “gold ore” and
“copper ore.”

Gangue :
- Ore is always mixed with unwanted rocks and minerals,
known collectively as gangue.
- The ore and the gangue are mined together and then
separated. The desired element is then extracted from the ore.
- The metal may be still further refined (purified) or alloyed
with other metals.
 (Iron Ore)
(Cupper Ore)

(Lead Ore) (Gold Ore)

Important ore minerals
•Acanthite: Ag2S for production of silver

•Barite: BaSO4

•Bauxite Al2O3 for production of aluminium

•Beryl: Be3Al2(SiO3)6 for production of Berillium

•Bornite: Cu5FeS4 for production of Copper

•Cassiterite: SnO2 for production of tin

•Chalcopyrite:
Chalcocite: CuCuFeS
S for for production
production of of Copper
copper
• 2
2
•Chromite: (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 for production of chromium
•Cinnabar: HgS for production of mercury
•Cobaltite: (Co,Fe)AsS for coblt
•Columbite-Tantalite or Coltan : (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6
•Galena: PbS for lead
•Gold: Au, typically associated with quartz or as placer deposits

•Hematite: Fe2O3 : for Iron

•Ilmenite: FeTiO3 : For Titanium

•Magnetite: Fe3O4 : For iron

•Molybdenite: MoS2 : For Mo

•Pentlandite:(Fe, Ni)9S8 : For Nickel

•Pyrolusite:MnO2 : For Manganese

•Scheelite: CaWO4 : For tungsten

•Sphalerite: ZnS : For Zinc

•Uraninite (pitchblende): UO2 for production of metallic uranium

•Wolframite: (Fe, Mn)WO4 : For tungsten

Processes of ore formation:
- The various theories of ore genesis explain how the various types of
mineral deposits form within the Earth's crust.
- Ore genesis theories are very dependent on the mineral or
commodity.

- Ore genesis theories generally involve three components:

(i)source (ii) transport or conduit (iii) trap

(i) Source is required because metal must come from

somewhere, and be liberated by some process

(ii)Transport is required first to move the metal bearing fluids or

solid minerals into the right position, and refers to the act of physically
moving the metal, as well as chemical or physical phenomenon
which encourage movement

(iii) Trapping is required to concentrate the metal via some

physical, chemical or geological mechanism into a concentration
which forms minable ore
- The biggest deposits are formed when the source is large, the
transport mechanism is efficient, and the trap is active and ready at
the right time.

- Mineral deposits of economic importance may be formed in

a variety of ways.

- Their formation is very complex and most often takes

place in a combination of more than one processes.

- Mineral deposits form

- From magma by crystallisation or seggregation
or
- Metamoprhism and alteration of preexisting
rocks and minerals
or
- By sedimentary processes.
Processes Resulting deposits Varieties/examples
Magmatic concentration Magmatic deposits Diamond, chromite
Sublimation Sublimates
Contact metasomatism Contact-metasomatic deposits Wollastonite
Hydrothermal action (a) Filling of cavities
(b) Replacement of rock masses
Sedimentation (a) Sedimentary beds Iron, Manganese
(b) Evaporities Salt, gypsum
(c) coal, petroleum
Weathering (a) Residual concentration Bauxite
(b) Placers Monazite, REE
(c ) Oxidised and supergene Cupper, Lead, Zinc
deposits
Metamorphism Metamorphic deposits graphite
Hydrology Ground water supplies
 Classification of mineral deposits

(based on genetic significance)

Primary deposits
-Form from magma or mineral
rich solutions under influence
of temp & pressure.
Examples:
Gold, chromite, magnetite,
Nickel, copper, lead, zinc etc.
Based on time of formation w.r.t. host rocks:
Syngenetic mineral deposits
-form in the same period as
host rocks
eg. Chromite, coal, Iron etc.
Secondary deposits
-Formed from either sedimentary
processes or by weathering,
transportation and metamorphism
of pre-existing minerals.
Examples:
Gypsum, limestone, bauxite,
Manganese,iron, kyanite etc.
Epigenetic mineral deposits
-Formed later than host rocks
-eg. vein/hydrothermal deposits
Cu,Pb, Zn, Au
Magmatic deposits:
-are ore bodies which ahs intimate association with igneous rocks.
-In this there are different stages of ore formation:
(i)Early magmatic :
(a) Disseminated crystallisation without concentration
eg. Diamond in Kimberlite pipes.
(b) Crystallisation –segregation : eg. Chromite , platinum deposits
(ii) Late magmatic :
(a) Residual, liquid accumulation and/or injection
eg. Titano-magnetite, chromium, platinum
(b) Liquid separation and accumulation: eg. Ni-Cu deposits
(c) Pegmatites: eg. Beryl
 Ore
minerals
(eg
Chromite
Crystals).
(Dissemination of ores (segregation of ores
eg. Diamond in kimberlite Eg. Chromite or magnetite)
pipes)
[Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind fractional
crystallisation in a magma. While cooling, the magma evolves in
composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt.
1: olivine crystallizes; 2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize; 3:
pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize; 4: plagioclase crystallizes.
At the bottom of the magma reservoir, a cumulate rock forms.]
- Fractional crystallization is one of the most important
geochemical and physical processes operating within the
Earth's crust and mantle.

- Fractional crystallization is the removal and segregation

from a melt of mineral precipitates; except in special
cases, removal of the crystals changes the composition of the
magma.

- Fractional crystallization in silicate melts (magmas) is

complex compared to crystallization in chemical systems at
constant pressure and composition, because changes in
pressure and composition can have dramatic effects on
magma evolution.

-
- Addition and loss of water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
and oxygen are among the compositional changes that must
be considered.
- For example, the partial pressure (fugacity) of water in
silicate melts can be of prime importance, as in near-
solidus crystallization of magmas of granite composition.

- The crystallization sequence of oxide minerals such as

magnetite and ulvospinel is sensitive to the
oxygen fugacity of melts, and separation of the oxide phases
can be an important control of silica concentration in the
evolving magma, and may be important in andesite genesis.
 Discontinuous Continuous
    High
Series Series

                     

Plagioclase
  Olivine        
(Calcium rich)

                         

  Pyroxene                

                         

  Amphibole                

                         

Relative
Biotite Plagioclase
      Crystallization
(Black Mica) (Sodium rich)
Temperature

             
           
           

      Orthoclase          

                       

Muscovite
               
(White Mica)

                       

      Quartz          

                  Low