INTRODUCTION

• Nuclear energy.

• Nuclear power plants.

• Nuclear reactors.
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
INSTALLED GENERATING CAPACITY (AS
ON 31-06-2006)
THERMAL ( COAL 83.7 GW
AND GAS)
HYDROELECTRIC 33.2 GW

RENEWABLE 6.2 GW

NUCLEAR 3.2 GW

TOTAL 127 GW
PROJECT REQUIREMENTS BY THE YEAR
2031-32
THERMAL(COAL 390 GW
AND GAS)
HYDROELECTRIC 150 GW

RENEWABLE 97 GW

NUCLEAR 63 GW

TOTAL 700 GW
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN INDIA
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
REACTORS
• Based on neutron energy.
2.Fast reactor.
In these reactors the fission is affected
by fast neutrons without any use of
moderators.
2. Thermal reactors.
In this the fast neutrons are slowed by
the use of moderators. The slow
neutrons are absorbed by the fissionable
fuel and chain reaction is maintained. The
moderator is most essential component in
these reactors.
• BASES OF FUEL USED
2.NATURAL FUEL.
In this reactor the natural uranium is
used as fuel and generally heavy water
or graphite is used as a moderator.
2. ENRICHED URANIUM.
In this reactor, the uranium used
contains 5 to 10 % U-235 and ordinary
water can be used as moderator.
• BASIS OF MODERATOR USED
1. WATER MODERATOR
2. HEAVY WATER MODERATOR
3. GRAPHITE MODERATOR
4. BERYLLIUM MODERATOR

• BASES OF COOLANT USED

1. WATER COOLED REACTORS
2.GAS COOLED REACTORS
3. LIQUID METAL COOLED REACTORS
4. ORGANIC COOLED REACTORS.
 PRESSURIZED WATER
REACTOR
• In a PWR, there are two separate coolant
loops (primary and secondary), which are
both filled with ordinary water.
• The pressure in the primary coolant loop is
typically 15-16 Megapascal, which is
notably higher than in other nuclear
reactors.
• Coolant used in PWR is mainly water. It
flows at a temperature of 315 °C(600 °F).
• The water remains liquid despite the high
temperature due to the high pressure in
the primary coolant loop (usually around
2200 psig [15 MPa, 150 atm]).
A PRESSURIZED HEAVY WATER
REACTOR
 ADVANTAGES OF PWR
• PWR reactors are very stable due to their
tendency to produce less power as
temperatures increase, this makes the reactor
easier to operate from a stability standpoint.
• PWR reactors can be operated with a core
containing less fissile material than is required
for them to go prompt critical. This significantly
reduces the chance that the reactor will run out
of control and makes PWR designs relatively
safe from criticality accidents.
• Because PWR reactors use enriched uranium as
fuel they can use ordinary water as a moderator
rather than the much more expensive heavy
water as used in a pressurised heavy water
reactor.
• PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the
primary loop, so the water in the secondary
 DISADVANTAGES OF PWR
• High strength piping and a heavy pressure
vessel are required for highly pressurized
coolant and hence increases construction
costs.
• Most pressurized water reactors cannot be
refueled while operating. This decreases
the availability of the reactor- it has to go
offline for comparably long periods of time
(some weeks).
• Corrosion of carbon steel due to the
presence of boric acid in coolant, limits the
lifetime of the reactor and also increases
• Water absorbs neutrons making it
necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which
increases the costs of fuel production. If
heavy water is used it is possible to operate
the reactor with natural uranium, but the
production of heavy water requires large
amounts of energy and is hence expensive.
• Because water acts as a neutron moderator
it is not possible to build a fast neutron
reactor with a PWR design. For this reason it
is not possible to build a fast breeder
reactor with water coolant.
• Because the reactor produces energy more
slowly at higher temperatures, a sudden
cooling of the reactor coolant could increase
power production until safety systems shut
BWR(BOILING WATER REACTOR)
 ADVANTAGES OF BWR
• The reactor vessel and associated
components operate at a substantially
lower pressure compared to a PWR .
• Pressure vessel is subject to significantly
less irradiation compared to a PWR, and so
does not become as brittle with age.
• Operates at a lower nuclear fuel
temperature.
• Fewer components due to no steam
generators and no pressurizer vessel.
• Lower risk (probability) of a rupture
causing loss of coolant compared to a
PWR, and lower risk of a severe accident
should such a rupture occur
 DISADVANTAGES OF BWR
• Much larger pressure vessel than for a
PWR of similar power, with
correspondingly higher cost.
• Contamination of the turbine by short-
lived activation products.
• Complex operational calculations for
managing the utilization of the nuclear
fuel in the fuel elements during power
production. More incore nuclear
instrumentation is required.
CANDU(CANADIAN DEUTERIUM
URANIUM) Key
Heavy
Fuel
1 7 water
bundle
pump
Calandria
Fueling
2 (reactor 8
machines
core)
Heavy
Adjuster
3 9 water
rods
moderator

Heavy water
Pressure
4 pressure 10
tube
reservoir

Steam
5 Steam generator
11 going to
steam turbine

Cold water
Light water returning
6 12
pump from
turbine
Building
13 made of
RCC
• The "whole idea" of the CANDU design is
that the uranium does not have to be
enriched, but simply formed into ceramic
natural uranium-dioxide fuel. This saves
on the construction of an enrichment
plant, and on the costs of processing the
fuel.
 GAS COOLED REACTORS
• Uses graphite as a neutron moderator and
carbon dioxide as coolant.
• The GCR was able to use natural uranium as
fuel.
• Two main types of GCR:-
4.Magnox reactors developed by United
Kingdom.
5.UNGG reactors developed by France.
• The main difference between these two types
is in the fuel cladding material.
• Both types used fuel cladding materials that
were unsuitable for medium term storage
under water, making reprocessing an
 MAGNOX TYPES
• Magnox reactors are pressurised, carbon
dioxide-cooled, graphite-moderated
reactors using natural uranium (i.e.
unenriched) as fuel and magnox alloy as
fuel cladding.
• Boron-steel control rods were used.
• Magnox is short for Magnesium non-
oxidising.
• Advantage of a low neutron capture cross-
section.
• Disadvantages are:-
• It limits the maximum temperature, and
hence the thermal efficiency, of the plant.
• It reacts with water, preventing long-term
A Typical view of Magnox
reactor
UNGG (Uranium Natural Graphite
Gaz)
• It was graphite moderated, cooled by
carbon dioxide, and fueled with natural
uranium metal.
• Fuel cladding material, was magnesium-
zirconium alloy .
 METAL COOLED REACTOR

• Metal Cooled Reactors usually use liquid

sodium or a combination of sodium and
potassium. Sometimes these are called
breeder, fast, or fast breeder reactors.
• Liquid metal has great heat transfer
properties so that the reactor can be
operated at much lower pressures and
higher temperatures.
• Coolants used are :-
• Mercury, NaK, molten sodium, molten
lead.
 ADVANTAGES OF METAL COOLED
REACTORS
• High temperature can be achieved in the cycle
and that means high thermal efficiency at low
cost and low cost power.
• The sodium as a coolant need not to be
pressurized.
• The neutron absorption cross-section of sodium is
low and therefore, it is best suited to thermal
reaction with slightly enriched fuel.
• Then low cost graphite moderator can be used as
it can retain its mechanical properties and
strength at high temperature .
• In other reactors, the loss of coolant increase the
reactivity because of the removal of neutron
absorber. in each case the reactor must be
shutdown by safety rod otherwise it may cause
severe over heating.
• The reactor size is comparatively small.
DISADVANTAGES OF METAL COOLED
REACTORS
• The neutron economy is reduced with an
increase in temperature because the high
energy neutrons are subjected to resonance
peaks when the moderators is hot and
increase the chances of non fissionable
absorption of neutrons.
• It is always necessary to keep the graphite
and sodium separate as porous graphite may
absorb sodium and increase the absorption
capacity of the graphite. The penetration of
sodium between the layers of graphite can
cause mechanical failure.
• It is necessary to shield the primary and
secondary cooling system with concrete block
and as sodium becomes highly radioactive
due to neutron bombardment.
 BREEDER REACTOR
• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that
consumes fissile and fertile material at the
same time as it creates new fissile
material.
• Breeders can be designed to utilize
Thorium, which is more abundant than
Uranium.
• Production of fissile material in a reactor
occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile
material, particularly Uranium-238 and
Thorium-232.
 Types of breeder reactors

• The fast breeder reactor or FBR.

Initial fuel charge of plutonium, requires only
natural (or even depleted) uranium feedstock
as input to its fuel cycle. This fuel cycle has
been termed the plutonium economy.
• The thermal breeder reactor.
Initial fuel charge of enriched uranium,
plutonium, requires only thorium as input
to its fuel cycle. Thorium-232 produces
Uranium-233 after neutron capture and
beta decay.
 VVER(Vodo-Vodyanoi
Energetichesky Reactor or WWER)
• PRIMARY COOLING CIRCUIT
• Reactor.
• Pressurizer.
• Steam Generator.
• Pump.
• SECONDARY COOLING CIRCUIT
• Steam generator.
• Turbine.
• Condenser.
• Deareator.
• Pump.
VIEW OF VVER
 SAFETY BARRIERS
• A typical design feature of nuclear reactors
are layered safety barriers preventing
escape of radioactive material. The VVER
reactors have four layers:
• Fuel pellets: Radioactive elements are
retained within the crystal structure of the
fuel pellets
• Fuel rods: The zircaloy tubes provide a
further barrier resistive to heat and high
pressure.
• Reactor Shell: A massive steel shell encases
the whole fuel assembly hermetically.
• Reactor Building: The concrete containment
building that encases the whole first circuit
is strong enough to resist the pressure
 NUCLEAR MATERIALS
• The main fuel materials which are used
are natural uranium (0.7% U-235),
enriched uranium, plutonium(secondary
fuel) and U-233.
• Resources of U-235:
Granite rocks 4ppm uranium

sediments 3% uranium
originated from
volcanic rocks
Sea water Very low (about
3.3 microgram
uranium)
 PROPERTIES OF URANIUM FUEL
1. High tensile strength at high temperature
is necessary to prevent the buckling of
fuel elements and to bear thermal
stresses.
2. High thermal conductivity .
3. Better machinability and higher ductility
are desired as the cost of machining is
reduced.
4. The fuel element must be corrosion
resistant so that the element if exposed
to the coolant will not corrode away and
enter the coolant system.
5. The fuel should have high radiation
stability, so that nuclear radiation will not
 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF
URANIUM FUEL
• Natural uranium.
• chemically stable at room temperature
but oxidizes rapidly even at low
temperature (100° C). The uranium is
strongly corroded in the presence of
water. The uranium melts at 1129°C.
• The rate of reaction is less in presence of
CO2, therefore, uranium fuel can be
operated safely upto 450°C in CO2 cooled
reactor.
• Uranium oxide.
• It is a brittle ceramic, produced as a
powder and then sintered to form fuel
pellets.
• Advantages of UO2 fuel over the natural
uranium are
• As it is already oxidized, it is more stable
than natural uranium and presents less
problems of oxidation.
• UO2 does not present the problems of
phase changes. Therefore, it can be used
for higher temperature(2750°C melting
temperature).
• UO2 does not corrode as easily as natural
uranium.
DISADVANTAGES OF UO2
• low thermal conductivity (1.80 Kcal/m-hr-
°C).
• The enrichment is necessary with the use
of UO2.
• Being more brittle than natural uranium, it
tries to crack under the thermal stresses.
• The UO2 may disintegrate into a powder
and this causes serious consequences if
the can fails.
• The powder is oxidized to U4O9 by carbon
dioxide, which is far inferior in physical
properties compared with UO2. This
Uranium Carbide
• It is a black ceramic used in the form of
pellets. It has high density, high melting
point , possesses good thermal
conductivity and is free from the trouble of
phase change.
• It is more stable under irradiation and
gives high rate of reaction with CO2.
• The use of uranium carbide is not yet
economically justified.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUEL

FUEL DENSI Melting Specific Thermal Coefficie

TY point in heat in conductiv nt of
°C Kcal/kg°C ity in linear
Kcal/m- expansion
hr-°C 10 -6°C
Natura 19000 1129 0.037 26.3 18.20
l
uraniu
UO2 10600 2750 0.078 1.80 12.9
m

UC 13600 2350 - 20.6 10.5

 CLADDING AND STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL
• The cladding material is necessary to
prevent the fuel from corrosion by the
coolant.
• Properties of a good cladding material
are:-
• It must have high resistance to corrosion
during operation under high temperature
and pressure.
• It must have high thermal conductivity.
• It must maintain high strength.
• It must have high melting point.
• It should be non-toxic.
 CLADDING MATERIAL
• MAGNESIUM.(used in gas cooled
reactors)
• low neutron absorption cross-section, high
resistance to oxidation. Easily fabricated.
• it has high thermal expansion and it
catches fire at a temperature above its
melting point.
• BERYLLIUM. It has low neutron
absorption section, high melting point.
• Low ductility, more toxic, difficult to
fabricate and costly compared with
magnesium and stainless steel.
• STAINLESS STEEL. High resistance to
oxidation and better machinabilty.
• Higher thermal expansion.
• This is generally preferred in fast breeder
reactors.
• ZIRCONIUM. is preferred as best an
material due to its better physical and
nuclear properties.
• High resistance to corrosion even at high
pressure and temperature.
• The only undesirable characteristic is high
cost and scrap left after machining cannot
be re-used.
• It is generally used in PWR and BWR
 COOLANTS
• GASES:-
• better thermal and radiation stability, ease
of handling and absence of hazardous
conditions.
• CO2 is most common coolant used due to
its low cost and it is free from toxics and
explosion hazards.
• LIQUID METAL COOLANT:-
• Generally Li, Bismuth, lead, sodium are
used.
• ORGANIC LIQUIDS:-
• The benzene, biphenyl and terphenyle are
 DISPOSAL OF NUCLEAR WASTE
• Ground. This is the cheapest and easy
method of disposal because soil absorbs
radio-active material easily. Such disposal
is permissible mostly in areas of low
rainfall at points which are high above the
ground level.
• AIR. The disposal of radio-active gases
into air creates a lot of problems. Because
of strong radioactive gases like iodine and
strontium are absorbed by the plants and
they enters the human body through the
food. Cesium is absorbed in muscle and
strontium in bones and paralysis the
OCEAN.
• At many places the liquid waste is
disposed of to the ocean through the pipes
carried from the plant to the point of
disposal. In disposing the waste into the
sea it should not be very harmful to the
fish life and seaweed which is harvested
for human used.
• The danger of disposal in sea water is
indirect and depends on the absorption of
radio-active elements, like cesium and
strontium by plankton and then through
the biological chain to the edible fishes
Thanks…..
References
• ARORA, S.K., “ POWER PLANT
ENGINEERING”.
• RAI, G.D., “POWER PLANT ENGINEERING”.
• SHARMA, P.C., ”POWER PLANT
ENGINEERING”.
• HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG.
• HTTP://WWW.GOOGLE.COM.
• HTTP://WWW.SCIENCEDIRECT.COM.
• HTTP://WWW.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM.
• HTTP://WWW.ASK.COM.