Structure & properties

1
 Plastic deformation
• Crytalline order in the
solid is not lost
• Atom movements are
such that the crystal
structure remains the
same
• Two modes of plastic
deformation
 Slip & Twinning
 Slip is a shear
deformation
 Moves atom by many
interatomic distances

2
 Plastic deformation
• Surface of a deformed crytal shows groups of parallel
lines
 Correspond to steps on the surface called slip lines
 Atomic planes sheared resulting in the surface steps
• Slip planes are the closest packed planes
• The directions along which slip occurs also the
closest packed direction
• Slip is common at ambient & elevated temperature
• Twinning
 Changes the orientation of the twinned part
 Movement is only a fraction of interatomic distance
 Mainly at low temperatures

3
 Plastic deformation by slip
• Relatively large number of slip systems for fcc
& bcc crystals
 Quite ductile
• Extensive plastic deformation is possible
• Few active slip systems in hcp
 Normally quite brittle
• Slip planes are not so close packed in bcc
 Higher shearing stresses are required to cause slip
 Slip lines in bcc metals have a wavy appearance
• Slip occurs on several planes but in the <111> direction
• Dislocation can readily move from one type of plane to
another by cross slip
• Giving rise to the irregular wavy slip bands

4
 Shear strength
• Shear stress necessary for plastic deformation in a
perfect crystal τ max~µ /6
• Shear modulus for typical crystals 10-100 GPa
∀ τ max should be ~2-20 GPa
• Experimental values are very low
 Deform at a much lower stress
 Presence of dislocations in real crystals are responsible
• Measured stress values are associated with the
stress required to move a dislocation
• Dislocations move, when a shear stress is applied
parallel to a slip plane
 Dislocation moves in a sequencial fashion
 Occupying successive positions during its motion

5
 Shear strength
• Displacement is only a fraction of an interatomic
distance
 The incomplete plane is not bodily shifted
 Dislocation moves by small adjustments in the bond length
• Analogous to the movement of caterpillar

6
 Stress to move a dislocation
• Dislocations always present in crystals
• Whiskers are special crystals, almost free of
dislocations
 Very high strength
• The stress required to move a dislocation is
computed by Peierls & Nabarro
 Not very accurate
 Helps to understand the difference in plastic deformation
behaviour

7
 Stress to move a dislocation

• Unrelaxed
dislocation
 Bond lengths are
normal
 Below the incomplet
plane, the bonds are
virtually broken
• Relaxed dislocation
 Strains are
distributed more
evenly

8
 Stress to move a dislocation
• Width of a dislocation
 Distance up to which the stress-relaxing displacements are
appreciable
• Wide dislocations
 The displacements are distributed over an appreciable
distance
 Adjustments take place in the bond lengths are distributed,
when the dislocation moves
 The change in bond length is very small
• Narrow dislocations
 The displacements are distributed over small distance
 The row of atoms below slip plane has to move one full
interatomic distance
 More difficult to move

9
 Stress to move a dislocation

• Stress to move a
dislocation τ PN = µ exp(−2πw / b)
• Sensitive function of width
& Burger’s vector
• When the width is zero,
very high stress is
required
• As width increases, the
stress falls
• Precise determination of
width is difficult

10
 Stress to move a dislocation
• Nature of chemical boding determines
 Extent of relaxation & width
• Bonding is strong & directional in
covalent crytals
 Relaxation is small, narrow dislocation
 PN stress is very high
 Brittle fracture
 Eg. Diamond, Si

11
 Stress to move a dislocation
• Metallic crytals
 Bonds are non-directional and not so strong
 Dislocations are wide
 PN stress is low
 Exhibit considerable amount of plastic deformation
 Ductile
• Some covalent character persists in Iron
 Harder
 Cannot be cold worked to the same extent as
copper
• Ionic crystals
 Bonds are moderate strength & nondirectional
 Plastic deformation only under special
circumstances
12
 Stress to move a dislocation
• Large Burger’s vector
 High PN stress
 B.V. of NaCl is 3.95 Å
 B.V. of Cu is 2.55 Å
• Intermetallic compounds & other complex
crystal structure (Fe3C, CuAl2)
 No favourable crystal planes & directions
 Brittle
• Ordered Intermetallic compounds (CuZn)
 Dislocations should move in pairs to preserve
order
 Limited ductility
13
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, τ R.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: σ = F/A stress: τ R=Fs /A s σ and τ R
F slip plane τ R= FS /AS
A τ R
normal, ns
AS Fcosλ A/cosφ
nS φ
FS
F
ip
sl rec ti on
p ctio
n λ A
l i
di s re FS
F di τ R n AS
p
sli rec tio
di

τR = σ cos λ cos φ
14
Single Crystal Slip

Slip in a zinc
single crystal

Microscopic slip in a
single crystal 15
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
φ =60°
τ crss = 3000 psi
λ =35°
τ=σcos λ cos φ
σ = 6500 psi

Adapted
from Fig. 7.7,
τ=(6500 psi) (cos 35o)(cos 60o)
=(6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

τ=2662 psi <τcrss =3000 psi

σ = 6500 psi
So the applied stress of 6500 psi will not cause the
crystal to yield. 16
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, σ y)?

τcrss = 3000 psi = σ y cos λ cos φ = σ y (0.41)

τcrss 3000 psi

∴ σy = = = 7325 psi
cos λ cos φ 0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

σ ≥ σ y = 7325 psi
17
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries
σ
pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(λ , φ ) change from one Slip line on the
surface of a
crystal to another. polycrystalline
copper
• τ R willvary from one
crystal to another.
• The crystal with the
largest τ R yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals 300
yield later. µ m
18
 Temperature & dislocation motion

• Dislocation motion
can be assisted by
thermal energy
• At higher
temperatures
 Stress lower than PN
stress can move a
dislocation

19
 σ - ε Behavior vs. Temperature
800
• Results for -200°C

Stress (MPa)
polycrystalline iron: 600
-100°C
400
From Fig. 9.20
Callister’s Materials Science
and Engineering, 200 25°C
Adapted Version.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• σ y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
• Why? Vacancies 2. vacancies
help dislocations replace
atoms on the
move past obstacles. disl. half obstacle
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

20
 Multiplication of dislocations
• Dislocation density in an annealed crystal is
about 1010m-2
• On application of stress
 Dislocations move & disappear at the surface
• We expect a nearly perfect crystal
• But, dislocation density increases on plastic
deformation
 For a lightly cold worked crystal 1012m-2
 For a heavily cold worked crystal 1016m-2
• There are sources to generate new
dislocations during plastic deformation
 One such source is called Frank-Read source
21
Work hardening & dynamic recovery
• Basal planes are slip planes in hcp
• If the single crystal is favourably oriented
w.r.t. tensile axis
 Frank-Read souce can continuously operate
 Loops produced can move out & disappear
 Very little work hardenening
 Stress to cause plastic deformation remains
constant
• Tensile stress axis is not favourably oriented
 Slip on less common slip planes
 Nonparallel to the basal plane
 Dislocations can intersect each other
 Increases the stress required for plastic
deformation
22
 Work hardening & dynamic recovery
• Intersection is very
common in bcc & fcc
crystals
• Intersection produce a
third disloction
• Burger’s vector lies
neither of the two planes
• It bocomes immobile
• Acts as obstacle to the
oncoming dislocations
• Dislocations get piled up
• A back stress builds up
• Dislocations sources stop
operating
• Better work hardening
23
Work hardening & dynamic recovery
• The most effective Frank-read source
(longest) operate first
• Once gets immobilised
 Less effective sources have to operate
 Requires an increase in stress
• Also immobilised by the formation of sessile
dislocation
• Plastic deformation can continue only with the
activation of still shorter sources
• A progressively increasing amount of stress is
required
• This is the process of work hardening in
single crystals
24
Work hardening & dynamic recovery
• Shear stress to move a dislocation increases
with incresing dislocation density
∀ τ = τ o + Aρ 1/2, A is a constant
 Dislocation density increases with increasing
plastic strain
• Under suitable conditions, the ρ can be
increased to very high values
 Strength approaches perfect crystal strength
• Cold working
 A common strengthening method
 Increases the yield stress, but decreases the
elongation
25
Work hardening & dynamic recovery
• Dynamic recovery
 After a certain stress level, the rate of
strain hardening decreases
 This stress level is sufficient to activate
screw dislocations
 Screw dislocations are free to move on any
slip plane
 They can cross-slip at sufficiently large
stress

26
 Strategies for Strengthening:
Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao − Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao 27
 Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

From Fig. 5.10,

Callister’s Materials
Science and
Engineering, Adapted
Version.

0.9 µ m (Fig. 5.10 is courtesy

of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)
28
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume

 Carefully grown single crystal

 ca. 103 mm-2
 Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
 Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
σ
• Yield stress increases
σ y1 large hardening
as ρ d increases: σ y0 small hardening

ε
29
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

From Fig. 10.5,

Callister’s Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.

30
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (σ y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

The influence of
cold work on the
stress-strain
behaviour for a
low carbon steel

31
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
ductility after cold working? Cold
Work
πro2 − πrd2
%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
2
πro Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)
60
700 800

500 600 40

300
300MPa Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
σ y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

32
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal ...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
40

400 30

ductility 20
300
Re Re Gr
c ov c rys ain
e ry tal Gr
liz ow
ati th
on
33
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now τ R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

34
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a small dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580°C.

35
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

36
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
− d on = Kt
37
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

The influence of
annealing temperature
on tensile strength &
ductility of brass

º
38
 Grain size & dislocation motion
• Grain boundaries provide obstacles to
dislocation motion
 Orientation of cyrstals on either side of boundary
is different
• Dislocation moving on a slip plane in one crystal rarely
move onto a similar plane in the adjacent crystal
 Also, crystals are separated by a thin
noncrystalline region
 Dislocations are stopped by a grain boundary
 Pile up against it
• The smaller is the grain size, the more
frequent is the pile up of dislocations
• A twin boundary can also act as an obstacle
39
 Strategies for Strengthening:
Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. The motion of a dislocation as it
encounters a grain boundary
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip. (from A Textbook of Materials Technology, by
Van Vlack, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.)

• Hall-Petch Equation: σyield = σo + k y d −1 / 2

40
 Strategies for Strengthening:
Reduce Grain Size

• Ultra fine grain sizes have been produced in

microalloyed steels
• Contain small quantities of strong carbide forming
elements
 Nb, V, Ti
• Very fine particles of carbide precipitate during hot
rolling
• Effectively pin down the migrating grain boundaries
• Fine grained material
• Strength increases by 50%

41
 Solid Solution Strengthening

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.

• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

42
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

From Fig. 10.4,

Callister’s Materials
Science and
Engineering,
Adapted Version.
43
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on
high density side
• reduce mobility of dislocation ∴ increase strength

a) Tensile lattice strains imposed on host atoms by a smaller substitutional impurity atom
b) Possible locations of smaller impurity atoms and there is partial cancellation
lattice strains. 44
Strengthening by small solute atom

45
 Strengthening by alloying
• large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
low density side

a) Compressive lattice strains imposed on host atoms by a larger substitutional impurity atom
b) Possible locations of larger impurity atoms and there is partial cancellation lattice strains.
46
Strengthening by large solute atom

47
 Solid Solution Strengthening

• Strengthening depends on two factors

 Size difference between solute & solvent
 Concentration of solute atom
• More size difference
 More intense stress field
• With large concentration
 Moving dislocation interacts with solute stress fields
at many points
• Yield stress is approximately proportional to the
concentration of solute

48
 Solid Solution Strengthening

• Size difference between Zn & Cu is small

 Least strengthening effect
• Size difference between Sn & Cu is large
 High strengthening effect
• For the same size difference, Ni produces a
greater strengthening effect than Zn
 Stress field depends on the elastic modulus of
solute
 Elastic modulus of Ni>Zn

49
 Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

400
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: σy ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases σ y and TS.

50
 Solid Solution Strengthening

• Strengthening effect is also found in interstitial

solutes
 Interstitial atoms are usually larger than voids
 Strong strengthening effect
 Equillibrium solubility tends to be small
 Sometimes large solubility possible
• Martensite
 Super saturated solution of carbon in iron
 Contains 40 times of C than equillibrium solubility
 Intense stress field
 Dislocation motion is very effectively hindered
 Martensite plates may also contain high dislocation
density
• Also increases the strength
51
Solid solution strengthening by interstitial solute

52
 Precipitation Strengthening
• Precipitate particles are obstacles to the motion of
dislocations
• Dislocations have two alternatives
 Cut through the precipitates
 Bend around & bypass them
• First alternative possible, when
 Slip plane is continuous
 Stress to move a dislocation in the precipitate is comparable to
matrix
• Cutting through occurs for small particles

53
 Precipitation Strengthening
• Cutting through is not possible, when
 There is an interface
 Abrupt orientation change at the interface
• Dislocations bend around & bypass the particles
 Mechanism is similar to the operation of a Frank-Read
source
 Stress required is inversely proportional to the average
interparticle spacing
 Effective with submicron particles
 Spacing between them is a few hundred Å

54
 Precipitation Strengthening

• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.

Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: σy ~
S
55
Precipitation Strengthening

• Optimum ageing results

in the right interparticle
spacing
• Over ageing
 Fine particles coalesce
into larger particles
 Large interparticle spacing
 Yield stress decreases

56
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminium is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Transmission electron
micrograph showing the
microstructure of a
7150-T651 aluminium
alloy (90000X)

1.5µ m (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and

A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.) 57
 Creep
• Permanent deformation of a
material under load as a
function of time
• Appreciable at temperatures
above 0.4 Tm
• Stage I
 Creep rate decreases with
time
 Work hardening is more
than recovery
• Stage II
 Creep rate is minimum &
constant
 Work hardening & recovery
are balanced
• Stage III
 Creep rate increases
58
 Creep
• Creep is a thermally activated process
• Several atomic processes are responsible
• Dynamic recovery occurs in the later stages of plastic
deformation
 Due to cross-slip of screw dislocations
• Low temperature region of creep
 Cross-slip continues with the aid of thermal energy
 Causes further plastic strain
• At high temperatures
 Appreciable diffusion rate of vacancies
 Atoms may diffuse to the edge dislocations or away from
them
 Edge dislocation climb up or down
 Immobile dislocations can move

59
 Creep

• The rate controlling step in the climb process

 Diffusion of vacancies
• Activation Energy of creep agrees with A.E. of
diffusion
• Diffusional creep
 Diffusion of vacancies controls the creep rate
 Vacancies move trasverse to the stress axis
 Elongation in the direction of the stress axis
 Contraction in the transverse direction

60
 Creep
• Grain boundary sliding
 Sliding of neighbouring
grains w.r.t. boundary
 g.b. lose their strength at
a lower temperature than
grains
 Noncrystalline nature
 Viscosity of noncrystalline
substances decreases
continuously on heating
• At temperatures above
0.5 Tm
 Viscosity is low enough to
behave like a liquid
 Allow the neighbouring
grains to slide against
each other

61
 Creep
• Grain boundary behaviour is different at
low temperature & high temperature
• At low temperature
 Provide enough obstacles to dislocation
 Plastic deformation difficult
• At high temperature
 Facilitate deformation by sliding

62
 Summary
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size.
--This decreases the strength.

63