Carbohydrates

Chapter 4
Atomic Bonding
 Four main elements found in nutrients
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Carbon H
O
N
H H
C
H C C O H

H H
What is a Carbohydrate?

 “carbo” = carbon
 “hydrate” = water

GLUCOSE
 Source of
Blood Glucose

DNA & RNA synthesis

Glycogen Synthesis

CARBOHYDRATES

ATP production Amino acid synthesis

Lipid Synthesis

4
Dietary Carbohydrates

Simple Complex

Glucose Starch

Fructose Fiber

Sucrose

Lactose
Sugars--Photosynthesis

● Carbohydrates,
mainly glucose,
are made by
photosynthesis
in plants.
● All other sugars
arise from
transformations
of glucose.
 The Saccharides

Mono Di Poly
Glucose Maltose Starch

Fructose Sucrose Glycogen

Galactose Lactose Fiber

Mono- Di- Poly-

Maltose
Maltose

Sucrose

Lactose
Glucose
●
KEY FUNCTION= ENERGY!!!
●
Brain, CNS, RBC and most all body tissues
are DEPENDENT on glucose for energy
●
Is a part of each disaccharide.
●
Forms polysaccharides
Fructose
●
The most intensely sweet
sugar (160)
●
Found in:
●
Fruits
●
Honey
●
Sodas (as HFCS)
Galactose

●
Found
mainly in
milk,
combined
with glucose
to form
lactose
Maltose
 Maltoseforms whenever starch
breaks down, such as during
digestion

 Maltose
also occurs in small
amounts in a few foods like barley
and beer
Lactose
●
Found only in milk
●
Not very sweet (16)
●
30 – 50% of milk’s
calories
●
Used in pharmaceuticals
Polysaccharides

 Mainly glucose molecules

 Three important types
 Glycogen
 Starches
 Fiber
Polysaccharides
 Glycogen
 Storage form of CHO in animals
 Found in liver and muscles
 Forms H-bonds with water, making it
bulky and relatively difficult to store
large quantities
 Can be converted to glucose as
needed
Polysaccharides
 Starch
 Found in grains, roots, tubers,
legumes…all come from PLANTS
 Storage form of glucose in plants
 Long chains of MS
Polysaccharides
 Starch
 Amylose- linear

 Amylopectin- branched
Fiber
 Fibers
 Structural parts of plants
 Found in fruits, vegetables, grains,
legumes
 Most fibers are polysaccharides
 Ex:
cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins,
gums, mucilages
Fiber

STARCH

GLUCOSE MOLECULE

CELLULOS
E

What makes starches different from fiber?

 Complex CHO: Dietary Fiber

 Cellulose – plant cell walls

INSOLUBLE
 Lignin – seeds of strawberries
 Hemicellulose – cereals
 Gums and mucilages – stabilizers
 Pectin – fruits and vegetables, consistency
SOLUBLE
Dietary Fiber Benefits (Insoluble)

Can Prevent these colon diseases:

●
Constipation
● Hemorrhoids
● Diverticulosis
May Help these conditions:
● Irritable bowel syndrome
● Cancer of the colon
● Obesity- fiber contributes satiety (both)
Dietary Fiber Benefits
(Soluble or Functional)

1. Helps to control insulin

response and blood sugar
(forms a gel)

2. Can lower cholesterol (bile)

Too Much Fiber!
 Displace nutrients from the diet.
 Chelating agents – bind Ca, Fe, Zn
 Dehydration
 Not enough energy and nutrients.
Fibers – Food Sources

Soluble Insoluble
 Apples
 Citrus
 Brown rice
 Oats  Cabbage
 Oat bran
 Barely
 Carrots
 Legumes  Brussels sprouts
 Rye  Wheat bran
 Seeds
 Vegetables  Whole grains
 Corn bran
Dietary Fiber

● How much do you need? http://www.youtube.com/watch?

DV = 25 - 30 grams/day

WHO = 27 - 40 grams/day

● (average US intake ~15 gm)

Digestion, Absorption,
and Metabolism of
Carbohydrates
 Digestion & Absorption of
Carbohydrates

 Monosaccharides are easy to digest

 Also easy to absorb, can cross GI tract easily
and enter blood stream
 Why glucose is used for treating low blood
sugar in diabetics
 MOUTH
SALIVARY AMYLASE

…and chewing action

STOMACH
• HCL continues to
digest CHO to small
extent

• FIBER aids with

satiety, but remains
Digestive Enzymes
 Highly Specific
 LactAse= splits lactose
 MaltAse= splits maltose
 SucrAse= splits sucrose

 ALL monosaccharides are converted to

GLUCOSE after absorption…the ONLY
monosaccharide we use
 So what about fructose?
 SMALL INTESTINE
Digestive enzymes
released
Sucrase
Lactase
Maltase
PANCREAS
Pancreatic amylase released into
small intestine breaks down
polysaccharides
FIBER remains intact as it
travels through the small
intestine

Lactose Metabolism

LACTASE

GALACTOSE GLUCOSE
 Dietary
Lactose

L iv e r
Glycogen

Glucose
+
Glucose
Galactose

Blood vessel
Galactose
Blood
Glucose

33
Lactose Intolerance

LACTASE

GALACTOSE GLUCOSE
Lactose Intolerance
 75% world’s population are affected
 Especially problematic with aging
 Bacteria love lactose- causes bloating, gas,
nausea, pain, diarrhea
CHO Digestion
 Small intestine
 Poly- and disaccharides 
monosaccharides
 Mostly glucose molecules are present
 Fibers remain intact through the small
intestine

 ABSORPTION takes place in SI…fiber

remains in GI tract
CHO Absorption
 Generally takes place in small
intestine
 Fructose absorbed less quickly…
what would be the consequence?

 Nutrientstaken to liver where

fructose and galactose usually
converted to glucose
 Intestinal
epithelial cell

Intestinal
epithelial cell

Glucose

Microvilli
38
Intestinal Epithelial Cell L iv e r
Villus Capillary

Portal Hepatic Vein

39
CHO Absorption
 Starch
 Amylose- linear

 Amylopectin- branched

Which starch would cause the fastest

increase in blood glucose concentration if
CHO Metabolism
 The fate of glucose
 Stored as glycogen in liver (1/3) and muscles
(2/3)
 Used as energy… converted to ATP in the cell
 Protein  glucose =
GLUCONEOGENESIS
 Fat glucose
 Other storage  as fat = LIPOGENESIS
 Dietary L iv e r
Carbohydrate

Glycogen
Glucose

Blood
Glucose

42
Uses of Glucose
●
Energy =FUEL
●
directly in metabolism
●
Storage- only 2 storage locations
●
as glycogen in liver
●
as glycogen in muscles
●
Release
●
as glucose from liver to the blood
●
Not released out of muscle- fuel source
Glucose to Fat

●
Excess glucose is converted to
fat by the liver

●
Fat stores unlimited
Glucose from Proteins
 Brain can only use glucose.
 When needed, protein is converted to
glucose – where does this protein
come from?
 Gluconeogenesis- making new
glucose (from protein)
 Protein-sparing action
Ketone Bodies
 Inadequate carbohydrate
 Fat can NEVER be converted back to
glucose.
 Abnormal breakdown of fat.
 Ketosis:
 Ketone bodies accumulate in the blood
 Acid-base imbalance
 Brain damage to fetus
Low-Carbohydrate Diets
 Body tries to make glucose from protein 
muscle wasting
 Body tries to use fat for energy  ketosis
 Brain can’t use fat or protein for fuel
 Lose weight because low liver glycogen,
loss of water
 Each glycogen ties up several water molecules
Conversion of Glucose into
Pyruvate GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose No O2 needed

A Cell

10
reactions

2 X Pyruvate
 Kreb’s cycle
Glycolysis O2 dependent
reactions Pyruvate

Pyruvate

CO2
u c t ion
P P rod
ob ic AT
Aer
Krebs
Cycle

CO2
CO2

49 Mitochondrion
Glucose
Inside the Cells of the Body
Glycolysis

Kreb’s cycle

2 X Pyruvate

Pyruvate

CO2
ob ic ATP
Ae r
Krebs
r o d u ction
Cycle P
CO2
CO2

Mitochondri
50 on
Blood Glucose Homeostasis
 Normal range of fasting blood glucose
concentration: 70 to 120 mg/dl
 Insulin: Hormone secreted by pancreas in
presence of blood glucose…in the fed state
 Facilitates uptake of glucose by cells who need the
CHO for energy
 Primary role is to lower blood glucose levels when
they are high
 increase of both blood glucose and blood ins
er a carbohydrate rich meal.
Blood
Blood Glucose Concentration, mg/dl

Insulin

170
Blood Glucose

120

70

40
Meal high in
carbohydrates
52 Time, hrs
Blood Glucose Homeostasis contd
 Glucagon
 Hormone from pancreas, released when BG low
 Releases glucose from other tissues
(gluconeogenesis)
 Primary function is to raise blood glucose when it
is low
 Stimulates liver to break down glycogen
Blood Glucose Concentration, mg/dl

170 u ca gon
o d Gl
Blo

Blood Glucose
120

70

40
FASTING

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
54 Time, hrs
 1. The normal range of blood glucose is 70 to
120mg/dl.
2. Insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response to
increased blood glucose, and its job is to lower
blood
glucose.
3. Insulin lowers blood glucose by stimulating body cells
to take it up (they act like a sponge, lowering blood
glucose levels).
4. Glucagon is secreted by the pancreas in response to
low blood glucose as occurs during a fast. Its job is to
raise blood glucose and maintain its concentration so it
doesn’t go below 70 mg/dl.
5. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen
to glucose which can then supplement the supply of blood
glucose.
58
Summary
Glycogen
Synthesis

Insulin Protein
Synthesis

Lipid
Synthesis

Glycogen Breakdown
Glucagon
Lipid Breakdown
59
 Sugar

Trends in Consumption
Sugar Intakes: Pounds/Year

Currently: 160

1980: 124

1985: 133 90 # from corn

and 70 # from
1994: 149 beet/cane
 Soda Intakes: Gallons/Year

Currently: 51
1980: 35
1990: 46
In 1960, the average
intake was 12 gallons
Children currently
of soda annually, and
consume ~ 65 pounds
38 milk. Now it is 51
of High Fructose Corn
soda and 24 milk
Syrup Annually
Trends and Recommendations
 The average American consumes 40 tsp sugar
daily

 USDA set max at 8 tsp for a 2000 cal diet

1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
4 grams of sugar = 1 teaspoon
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EEbRxTOy

High Fructose Corn Syrup

Manufacturing
 *Corn is first treated with
bacteria derived alpha
amylase
*Then glucoamylase
derived from aspergillius
breaks it down further
*Next, glucose isomerase
converts 42% to fructose
*Further refining to 90%
fructose
*The two are mixed to yield
HFCS, a 55% mixture
What it does in the Body
 Decreases insulin response
 Insulin resistance
 Raise triglycerides
 Cause high blood pressure
 Does not stimulate adipose release of
leptin
 Does not suppress ghrelin
What it does for Food
 Prevent overdrying
 Prevent freezer burn
 Controls crystallization
 High sweetness
 Low viscosity
 Can make a ‘gummy’ texture
 Blends easily
 Browns well
Correlations
 In rats, high
fructose caused
copper deficiency
related death

 In a large study of
nurses, those who
drank one soda or
juice/day had an
80% increase in
diabetes risk
