Signal Processing - E051

Professor Dr Ir Mostafa Afifi

mafifi@ieee.org
2747 795 012
 The Weekly Schedule
• 3 Hrs Lectures every week (one week , two
consecutive periods, # “1” (at S-MEC) & # “2” (at L1)
of Thursdays, with other Thursday , period # “2”

• 2 Hours of exercises every week.

4M2 on Wednesday , period “1” – S15
4M1 on Wednesday , period “4” – S14
4M3 on Sunday, period “3” – S1

• 1 Hour of Laboratory work every week

• 4M1,2 on Wednesday , period “3”
• 4M3 on Even Thursdays, period “2”
 Grading
• Final exam is 60%
• Exercise works 10%
• Laboratory Works 20%
• Attendance 5%
• Midterm Exam 5%
 INTRODUCTION
• The handling of operating electric and processing circuits by
mechanical engineers is proper for the advance of civil
prosperity. In all aspects of our life; as electromechanical
integration is now very evident.

• Mechanical engineers were the first to use electric motors to

operate and manipulate engine operations.

• Also they were the first to apply digital handling of information

using rotating shafts and timing activities.

• This course of Signal Processing introduces the practical

processing requirements for Mechanical Engineers, with tools
that facilitate practical Supervisory Applications.
 Examples of many applications for
Processing and Engineering in Automobiles
• For Safety: Antiskid brakes, inflatable restraints, Collision warning and
avoidance, Blind-zone detections, infrared night vision systems, Heads-up
displays and accident notifications.

• For Communications and entertainment: AM/FM Radios, Digital audio

Broadcastings, CD / Tape players, Cellular phones, Computer /e-mail.

• For convenience: Electronic navigation, Personalized seat/mirror/radio

settings, electronic door locks.

• For Emission, performance & Fuel economy: Vehicle instrumentation,

electronic ignition, Tire inflation sensors, computerized performance
evaluation and maintenance scheduling and adaptable suspension systems.

• For alternative propulsion systems: Electric vehicles, advanced batteries

and Hybrid vehicles.
Output of a transducer for a
Knocking Engine
 Other important applications are in
Household Appliances (Mechatronics)
with intimate integration and harmonious
blending of many different technologies
• Keypads for operator control
• Sensors
• Electronic displays
• Microcomputer Chips
• Electronic digital switches
• Heating Elements
• Motors
 Major application subdivisions
• Signal Processing: where transducers are used to convert physical
phenomenon to electrical signals that can be processed for desired
performance by computers. Major example of this is the control of ignition in
cars to optimize performance and avoid damaging knock of engines.
• Control Systems: gathering information with sensors and processing for
physical control, examples are the heating and air cooling in buildings,
temperature and flow rates in chemical processes and control of motion in
tall buildings
• Electronics: applied in every field of engineering and science, many useful
circuits are planned for this course to introduce and build major engineering
capabilities.
• Computer Systems: Process and store of information in digital formats,
Examples of wide scale applications is the control systems of modern cars,
including more than 50 microcomputers in one car
• Communication systems: with major modern Information technology using
Internet broadcastings in ground and Satellite systems (including roadside
sensors and GPS “global positioning Systems”)
• Electromagnetism: using microwaves in ovens, manufacturing of plywood,
cell phones and satellite applications.
• Power systems: for interchanging conversion of mechanical and electrical
energies with applications in transportation and increase of efficiency.
 Processing Procedures of signals
the block diagram for the processing procedures of
signals

Analog to Digital Digital to

Digital Analog
Signal
Converter Converter
(A/D) Processing

Analog Input Digital Input Digital Output Analog Output

 Fourier Signal Handling
The Fourier series expansion has three formats:
The trigonometric series “1”
f(x) = (ao / 2 ) + n= 1 ∑n =∞ [an cos (n x) + bn sin (n x) ]

With an = (1 / π ) 0 ∫2π f(x) cos(n x) dx and bn = (1 / π ) 0∫2π f(x) sin(n x)

Note that ao = (1 / π) 0∫2π f(x) dx

With cn = ( an 2 + bn 2 )1/2 , co = ao and φn = tan-1 ( - bn / an )

these can be transformed to the complex format

f(x) = (Co/2) + 1 ∑∞ Cn cos( n x + φn ) = - ∞∑∞ dn e jnx

with dn = (an –j bn) / 2 = (cn /2 ) ej φn , do = Co /2 = ao /2, and d –n = dn*

The average power

= (1 / 2π) 0 ∫2π f(x)2 dx =-∞ ∑∞ dn2 = (Co /2)2 + n=1 ∑n =∞ (cn2)/2
Fourier Transform of Square Pulse,
T= 0.02 Sec, τ = 0.01 Sec
τ in sec pi T
Pulse Amplitude
Hz 0.01 3.1415927 0.02 1

n f nπ τ / T )τ / T)sinc(ω τ / 2( |)sinc(ω τ / 2|

8- 400- 12.566- 0.000 0.000

7- 350- 10.996- 0.045- 0.091-

6- 300- 9.425- 0.000 0.000

5- 250- 7.854- 0.064 0.127

4- 200- 6.283- 0.000 0.000

3- 150- 4.712- 0.106- 0.212-

2- 100- 3.142- 0.000 0.000

1- 50- 1.571- 0.318 0.637

Fourier Transform of Square Pulse,
T= 0.02 Sec, τ = 0.01 Sec
Sinc Function & Fourier series (T/t=2)
Relative Amplitude

1.200
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
-0.200
00

00

00

00

0
0

10

20

30

40
-0.400
-4

-3

-2

-1

Frequency in Hz

Fourier Series of repeated pulse Fourier Transform "Sinc"

Rectangular Wave
f(t) = 0.5 + (2/pi) sin (100pi t)
+ (2/3pi) sin (300pi t) + (2/5pi)
sin (500pi t) +

pi 3.141593

t f1(t) f3(t) f5(t) f7(t)

0 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
0.001 0.697 0.868 0.996 1.069
0.002 0.874 1.076 1.076 0.990
0.003 1.015 1.081 0.953 0.981
0.004 1.105 0.981 0.981 1.034
0.005 1.137 0.924 1.052 0.961
0.006 1.105 0.981 0.981 1.034
0.007 1.015 1.081 0.953 0.981
0.008 0.874 1.076 1.076 0.990
0.009 0.697 0.868 0.996 1.069
0.01 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
0.011 0.303 0.132 0.004 -0.069
0.012 0.126 -0.076 -0.076 0.010
 The Fourier Transform
dn = (1/2π ) 0∫2π f(x) cos(n x) dx - (j / 2π ) 0∫2π f(x) sin(n x) dx

dn = (1/ 2π ) 0∫2π f(x) e-jnx dx

for x = ωo t dn = (1/To) 0∫2π f(ωot) e-jnωot dt = (1/To) F(ω)

f(t) = (1/To) -∞ ∑∞ F(ω) e jn ωot = (ωo /2π ) -∞ ∑∞ F(ω) e jn ωot ,

with ωo = Δ ω and ω = n ωo

f(t) = (1/2π) -∞ ∫∞ F(ω) e jωt dω and F(ω) = - ∞∫∞ f(t) e -jωt dt

for a single square pulse of amplitude “A” we have F(ω) = -τ/2 ∫ τ/2 A e -jωt dt

or F(ω) = Aτ sinc (ωτ/2) = Aτ [sin (ωτ/2)] / (ωτ/2)

The Sinc Function
Basics of the Numbering Systems
N = k=-r ∑m Ak bk ,

Where b is an integer ( > 1 ), called the base (or Radix),

Ak is an integer 0, 1, 2, …., b-1,

m and –r are determined by the extent of the number N,

“r” is not zero with existence of a decimal point

(the decimal point exists between A0 and A-1 ).

The most common basis are:

Decimal (base 10)

Binary (base 2)
Octal (base 8)
Hexadecimal (base 16)
Duodecimal (base 12)
 The Decimal, the binary and the
Hex presentations of Numbers
123.4510 = 1 x 102 + 2 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 4 x 10-1 + 5 x 10-2
123.452 = 0x27 + 1x26 + 1x25 + 1x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 +
1x21 + 1x20 + 0x2-1 + 1x2-2 + 1x2-3 + 1x2-4 +
0x2-5 + 0x2-6 + 1x2-7 + 1x2-8
+ a remainder of 0.0007813

= 01111011.011100112 + 0.0007813

(a 16 bit representation)

123.4516 = 7x161 + Bx160 + 7x16-1 + 3x16-2 + 3x16-3 + 0.0000488

= 7B.73316 + 0.0000488.
 BCD Presentations

BCD Coded Numbers & Codes

Octal Octal Hexadecimal Hex BCD Excess 3 Self Nine Gray Code
Decimal BCD complement of
excess 3
0 0 000 0 0000 0011 1100 0000
1 1 001 1 0001 0100 1011 0001
2 2 010 2 0010 0101 1010 0011
3 3 011 3 0011 0110 1001 0010
4 4 100 4 0100 0111 1000 0110
5 5 101 5 0101 1000 0111 0111
6 6 110 6 0110 1001 0110 0101
7 7 111 7 0111 1010 0101 0100
8 8 1000 1011 0100 1100

9 9 1001 1100 0011 1101

10 A 1010 1111

11 B 1011 1110

12 C 1100 1010
 Negative binary, Max & Min and
Rules of addition and subtraction
N
+ - = 2n
–N
maximum positive number is (2n-1 – 1)
and a minimum negative number is (-2n-1 )
For n = 8 bits
–128 ≦ N ≧127

Addition 0+0=0 Subtraction 0–0–0

0+1=1 0–1=1 with borrow of
1
1+0=1 1–1=1
1+1=0 carry 1 1–1=0
1+1+1=1 carry 1
 USA Standard 7 Bit Code for
)Information Interchange (ASCII
# 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3 MSBs 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 +4 LSB
0 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p 0000
1 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q 0001
2 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r 0010
3 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s 0011
4 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t 0100
5 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u 0101
6 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v 0110
7 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w 0111
8 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x 1000
9 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y 1001
10 LF SUB * : J Z j z 1010
11 VT ESC + ; K [ k { 1011
12 FF FS , < L \ l | 1100
13 CR GS - = M ] m } 1101
14 SO RS . > N ^ n ~ 1110
15 SI US / ? O _ o DEL 1111
 Analog to Digital conversion Rules
The number of used bits determines the resolution of the
A/D converter.
The number of digitized levels N = 2n

The resolution as the minimum signal variation that can be

recognized by the digital signal is determine by the analog
range divided by the number of digital recognizable levels.

i.e. Resolution = Vrange / 2n,

where n is the number of bits.

If the voltage range is between 1 and 10 volts,

then the Resolution = (10-1)/ 212 = 2.2 mV

 Graphical Coding Verify Ease of MMI and
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
• Automation in present day technology made it difficult to have
competitive production using the traditional Man Machine Interface
(MMI) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA).

• These named systems include much complex functionality with

involved textual programming. In most of the cases the
programmers have limited knowledge about the physical process.

• To overcome this complexity the graphical programming (G) was

lately invented to permit the development of complex applications
without the requirement of advanced computer programming
knowledge.

• Graphical programming uses virtual instruments (VIs) resulting into

intuitive MMI resembling a typical measurement and control block
diagram.
 Use of LabVIEW to solve First Order
Differential Equation; for step transition in a
Simple High Pass Digital Filter

Generate a G-code (for LabVIEW simulation) that implements the

emulation of the output voltage Vout (n) for an input step voltage Vin of 10
volts (starting at t= 0).
Vout = Ri and Note that the current i = C d (Vin - Vout ) / dt
When time is divided into equal small intervals, with equal separations of
:"∆ t”, starting at t=0, the voltages at any interval “n”, are related as follows
Vout (n) = (CR/∆ t) {[Vin (n) - Vin (n-1)] – [Vout (n) – Vout (n-1)]}
Separating the output voltage (at instant “n”) and denoting the time constant (CR = τ ) yields
Vout (n) = K [ Vin (n) – Vin (n-1) ] + K Vout (n-1),
Where K = (τ /∆ t) / [1+(τ /∆ t)] , with simulation shown as
follows:
The Control and Indication Panel
 The Implementation
Graphical Code Connections
 Digital filters
• The Low Pass R-C filter has the differential equation:
Vi - Vo = RC dVo/dt
• The Difference Equation at any two successive time
intervals separated by Δt is: R
Vo(n)=K Vo(n-1) + K1 Vi(n), iV V
o
C
with K = (RC/ Δt ) [1+ (RC/ Δt ) ] -1,

and K1 = [1+ (RC/ Δt ) ]-1

This difference equation describes the equivalent digital
form describing the action in discreet time intervals
separated by the time interval (Δt ), or what is called the
digital filter of first order.
The general equation for a digital filter is given by:
Vo(n)=Ka ∑a=1 N Vo(n-a) + Kb ∑b=0 M Vi(n-b)
in this 1st order filter N=1, M=0
 The Front Panel
of the LPF simulation
Front Panel
 The graphical code
for the LPF Simulation
 Superposition Application
Voltage Adders
Superposition can be applied to
generate the transfer function
to v from v1 and v2.

vo1 =v1RR2 /(RR1+RR2+R1R2),

vo2 =v2RR1 /(RR1+RR2+R1R2)

Then

v = v1 RR2 / (RR1+RR2+R1R2)
+ v2 RR1 / (RR1+RR2+R1R2)
=(v1R2+v2R1)R/(RR1+RR2+R1R2)

When R1=R2=Ro

v=(v +v )R /(2R+R )
 Performance of
the Differential Amplifier

differential input voltage vd = Vcc / A

= approximately (15 / 100000 = 0.15 mV)

 Non-Inverting OP-Amp
V(-) = Vin
)Vin = Vout R1 /(R1+Ff
Vout / Vin ) = (R1+Ff) / R1(

The Unity Gain Op-Amp Circuit

 Negative Feed Back
in Car Power Steering
 Inverting Op-Amp
i1 = V1 / R1 = - if

Vout / V1 = - Rf / R1
 Difference Op-Amp Circuit

V+ = V2 [ Rf / (R1+ Rf) ]
i1= [V1-V+] / R1
if = - [ Vout - V+ ] / Rf
if = - i1

Vout = (Rf / R1)(V2 - V1)

 Discharge of the Capacitor
C dvc /dt + vc /R = 0

vc = K e st

K = Vi

RCK s e st + K e st = 0
RC s + 1 = 0 s = - 1/RC
vc = Vi e –t/RC
 Charging of a Capacitor

RC d vc / d t + vc = Vs

vc = K1 + K2 e st

RC s) K2 e st + K1 = Vs + 1)

RC s)= 0 + 1) s = - 1/ RC K1 = Vs

)Vc = Vs – Vs e –t/RC = Vs (1 – e –t/RC

 Integrator and differentiator
Using the Capacitors

t
iin =C d vin / dt
⌠ −Vin iin = vin / R
Vo :=  dt
 R ⋅C vo = - RC d vin / dt
⌡
0
 Reactance of Capacitor and
Inductor with Alternating Voltage
For the Capacitor v(t)
)v(t)== V
Vmm sin (ωt) and
sin (ωt for the Inductor
)i(t) = C dv / dt = ωC Vm cos (ωt
= Vm cos (ωt) / (1 / ωC)
= - j Vm sin (ωt) / (1 / ωC).

i(t) = Vm sin (ωt) / (1 /jωC)

i(t) = - Vm cos (ωt) / ωL
Vm sin (ωt+π/2) / ωL= -
Capacitor reactance = 1 /jωC = XC = - j Vm sin (ωt) / ωL
i(t) = Vm sin (ωt) / j ωL
i(t)==Vm
i(t) Vmsin
sin(ωt)
(ωt)/ /XX Inductor reactance = jωL = XL
 RLC Circuits
and its Mechanical Analogy

L d2 Q / d t2 + R dQ / d t + (1/C) Q = Vs
m d x / d t + K d x / d t + Cm x = F
2 2

Qc = D + A e s1t + B e s2t
X=D+Ae s1 t
+Be s2t

), the mass (m) equivalent to the inductance (L

Displacement x
) spring action (Cm) equivalent to the inverted capacity (1/C is equivalent to the
) viscous damping (K) equivalent to the Resistance (R Charge Q
 Solution of the 2 order DE nd

The solution for this second order circuit is for the mechanical:

x = (F/Cm){ 1 – e-α t [cosh β t + (α /β ) sinh β t ]},

And the velocity x* = (F/Cm)( ω o2/β ) e-α t sinh β t,
Where α = (K/2m), β = (α 2 - ω o2)1/2 , and ω o2= Cm /m

The solution for the electrical is:

Vc = Vi { 1 – e-α t [cosh β t + (α /β ) sinh β t ]},
And the current I = CVi ( ω o2/β ) e-α t sinh β t,
Where α = (R/2L), β = (α 2 - ω o2)1/2 , and ω o2= 1/(LC)

Critical Damping is always desirable, where α = ω o

The Digital form of the 2nd order DE
Vc(n) = K1 Vc(n-1) +K2 Vc(n-2) +Ko Vi (n),

with K1 = (2LC/Δt2 + RC/ Δt) (LC/Δt2 + RC/ Δt)-1 ,

K2 = - (LC/Δt2) (LC/Δt2 + RC/ Δt)-1 ,
and Ko = 1 / (LC/Δt2 + RC/ Δt)

This can be G programmed with LabVIEW dual for loops.

 Bipolar Junction Transistor Base
and
 v bi e 
collector Currents
 vt  ic : =β ⋅ ib
i b : ( =1 − α ) ⋅ i e s⋅  e − 1 i i
i
250 15
240
230
14
220 13
210
200 12
190
180
11
170 10
160
150 9
140
3 8
6 130
ibi⋅10 120 ici⋅ 1 0 7
110
100 6
90
80
5
70 4
60
50 3
40
30 2
20 1
10
0 0
0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71 0.72 0 .5 80 .5 9 0 .6 0 .6 10 .6 20 .6 30 .6 40 .6 50 .6 60 .6 70 .6 80 .6 9 0 .7 0 .7 10 .7 2
vbei
v b ie
The Base Operating lines and the
Collector Inversion Swing,
Av = - 4/0.8 =-5
 AC Circuit of the BJT
• The AC resistance at the input of the base ( for vb < vT) is
given by IB + ib = Is e(VB + vb)/vT = Is eVB/vTevb/vT
= IB ( 1 + vb/vT) and VT=k T/q
k is Boltzman constant = 1.38x10-23 J/Ko, q = 1.6x10-19 C, T in Ko

meaning ib = IB vb/vT i.e. rπ = vT/ IB & RB=R1//R2

 AC Circuit of the MOSFET
• ID + id = K (VGS + vgs – Vto)2
= ID + 2K (VGS – Vto) vgs
or id =2K (ID /K)1/2 vgs=2 )K ID)1/2 vgs=gm vgs
gm = 2 (K ID)1/2
 Bode Patterns and Frequency Response of
LP, HP, BS & BP Filters
j ⋅ ωi ⋅ R ⋅ C j ⋅ ωi ⋅ C ⋅ R
V1ci : = V o bi : =
1 − ( ω i) ⋅ L ⋅ C + j ⋅ ω i ⋅ C ⋅ R
2
1 + j ⋅ ωi ⋅ R ⋅ C
1 − ( ω i) L ⋅ C
2
1
Vci := V o is: =
1 + j ⋅ ωi ⋅ C ⋅ R 1 −  ( ω i) ⋅ L ⋅ C + j ⋅ ω i ⋅ C ⋅ R
2

1 1
1 0.9 1 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Voii 0.6 Vobi 0.6
0.5 0.5
V1oii 0.4 Vosi 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
−4
0.1 − 3 0.1
10× 10 1×10 0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−3 ωi 9.901 1×10
−3 ωi 9.901
1× 10
 The Frequency Bandwidth of Filters
1
−( ωi) ⋅ C ⋅ L
2
v03i :=
1− ( ωi) 2 ⋅ L ⋅ C + j ⋅ ωi ⋅ C ⋅ R v04i :=
1− ( ωi) 2 ⋅ L ⋅ C + j ⋅ ωi ⋅ C ⋅ R
ωi ⋅ L 100
Qi :=
R
Q503 = 3.16 100
80 80

60 60
ωo
= 159.247 40 40
Q503 ⋅ 2 ⋅ π R 4
α := φ1i
3 .2 0 3
20 3.6 φ1i 20

f2 − f1 = 159.155 2⋅ L 0 3.2
φ2i
0
φ2i v0 3i 2 . 8
20 2 . 4 20
1 v0 5i 2 40
ωo : = 40
v0 4i 1 . 6
L⋅ C 60 1 . 2 60
0.8 80
80 0.4
−6
× 0
3 .9 100
4 81 0 100
0 0 100
1 00 200
2 0 0 300
3 0 0 4400 6 00
00 50 0500 7 00100
0 600 80 0 200
700 0 0 1300
9800 900 41
0 00
1 i 3
 Combinational Logic Networks
A B A٨B (AB) (A+B) A B A٧B
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 AND OR NOT (Invert) 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

1 00 1 00
01 1 NAND NOR 01 0
10 1 10 0
11 0 11 0

An XOR Gate

.Monitoring of closing car doors using a CLN

 The Half Adder Logic and Its
Combinational Logic Network
The AND, the XOR and HA logics

A B A .B A B A ӨB A+B C S
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +0=0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 +1=0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 +0=0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 +1=1 0

S = AB + AB

C = A.B
The Full Adder

C = AB + AC + BC

S =A B C +A B C +A B C +A B C
 Encoder and Decoder
for the Gray Code
Binary Gray Code Gray Code Binary

0000 0000 0000 0000

0001 0001 0001 0001
0010 0011 0011 0010
0011 0010 0010 0011
0100 0110 0110 0100
0101 0111 0111 0101
0110 0101 0101 0110
0111 0100 0100 0111
1000 1100 1100 1000
1001 1101 1101 1001
1010 1111 1111 1010
1011 1110 1110 1011
1100 1010 1010 1100
1101 1011 1011 1101
1110 1001 1001 1110
1111 1000 1000 1111
 Karnaugh map and the simplification of
combinational logic expressions
The combinational logic expression F = A B D + A B D + B C D +A B C
Can be simplified to:
F = F1 = A D + B C D + A B C
Which can also be simplified to:
F = F2 = A D +A B C

the four variable KARNAUGH map

easily show the validity of the short
expression
 Karnaugh Map Simplifies the
Combinational Logic Expressions
Z=WXY+WXY+WXY+WXY
D=ABC+ABC+ABC+AB
E=ABCD+ABCD+ABCD+ABCD
A General Purpose Flip-Flop
Register Memory Unit
 Laboratory Experiments
• Diode Characteristics
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) Characteristics
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Characteristics
• BJT Collector-Base Current Relation “ β “
• First Order Digital Filter LabVIEW Experiment
• Inversion-Non Inversion Op Amp switching
• 4-bit Digital to Analog Op Amp conversion
• Bi-stable Op Amp Multi-vibrator
 Diode Experiment - 1
Vd Id R K-Ohm r K-Ohm
18
16
Volt mA Vd / Id dV/dI
14

Current in mA / or R in Ohm
0.5 0.1 5.000
12
0.53 0.2 2.650 0.3
10
0.547 0.3 1.823 0.17 8

0.56 0.4 1.400 0.13 6

4
0.57 0.5 1.140 0.1
2
0.585 0.6 0.975 0.15
0
0.587 0.7 0.839 0.02

62

65
7

96
7
0.

5
54

58

0.
0.

0.
5
0.

0.

0.
0.59 0.8 0.738 0.03
V oltage (V o lts )
0.596 0.9 0.662 0.06

0.6 1 0.600 0.04 Diode V oltage currents

rasistanc e
0.62 1.5 0.413 0.04
Dynamic rasistance K-Ohm
0.63 2 0.315 0.02

0.65 3 0.217 0.02

0.7 16 0.044 0.004

Light Emitting Diode Experiment
Vd Id R K-Ohm r K-Ohm
3.5

Dilde Current in "mA" / R in Ohm

2.5
Volt mA Vd / Id dV/dI
2

1.5

1.76 0.22 8.000 8 0.5

0
1.76 1.8 1.87 1.9
1.8 1 1.800 0.0513
D io d e V o lta g e

1.87 2 0.935 0.07 Light E m itting D iode R es is tanc e - K O hm

D y nam ic R es is tanc e

1.9 3 0.633 0.03

 Digital to Analog Experiment
R is KΩ 7.2 Predominaing
Resistance for
tolerance

+
Vo
b3 2R O U T 2R is replaced by KΩ 10
- O P A MP 4R ie replaced by KΩ 22
b2 4R R

8R is replaced by KΩ 47
b1 8R
R is replaced by 16 KΩ 100
b0 16R
Vi

Computations are based on the replaceable values

Measurements indicate the tolerances of the resistor values

(± 10%)

ConclusionResistor values and its tolerances are important for building this kind of D/A converter
 Digital to Analog Experiment
Vo/Vi = - (R/Ro)bo - (R/R1)b1 - (R/R2)b2 - (R/R3)b3

R in K Ohm 10 22 47 100 7.2 Vo Vo Ass Bin

Bin Value b3 b2 b1 bo Vo / Vi Measured Output
0 0 0 0 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
1 0 0 1 0.072- 0.360- 0.416- 0.313-
2 0 0 1 0 0.153- 0.766- 0.875- 0.625-
3 0 0 1 1 0.225- 1.126- 1.291- 0.938-
4 0 1 0 0 0.327- 1.636- 1.857- 1.250-
5 0 1 0 1 0.399- 1.996- 2.273- 1.563-
6 0 1 1 0 0.480- 2.402- 2.732- 1.875-
7 0 1 1 1 0.552- 2.762- 3.148- 2.188-
8 1 0 0 0 0.720- 3.600- 4- 2.500-
9 1 0 0 1 0.792- 3.960- 4.416- 2.813-
10 1 0 1 0 0.873- 4.366- 4.875- 3.125-
11 1 0 1 1 0.945- 4.726- 5.291- 3.438-
12 1 1 0 0 1.047- 5.236- 5.857- 3.750-
13 1 1 0 1 1.119- 5.596- 6.273- 4.063-
14 1 1 1 0 1.200- 6.002- 6.732- 4.375-
15 1 1 1 1 1.272- 6.362- 7.148- 4.688-
 Lab Verification for the Inversion
-Non-Inversion Op Amp Operations
Bi-stable Op Amp Multi-vibrator

f = 1 / π R1 C