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A sine wave
8
5*sin (24t)
6
4
Amplitude = 5
2 Frequency = 4 Hz
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
seconds
A sine wave signal
8
5*sin(24t)
6
Amplitude = 5
4
2 Frequency = 4 Hz
Sampling duration =
-4
1 second
-6
-8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
seconds
An undersampled signal
sin(28t), SR = 8.5 Hz
2
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
The Nyquist Frequency
• The Nyquist frequency is equal to one-half
of the sampling frequency.
• The Nyquist frequency is the highest
frequency that can be measured in a signal.
Fourier series
• Periodic functions and signals may be
expanded into a series of sine and cosine
functions
http://www.falstad.com/fourier/j2/
The Fourier Transform
• A transform takes one function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)
The Fourier Transform
• A transform takes one function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)
• Continuous Fourier Transform:
1 N 1
hk H n e 2ikn N
N n 0
Fast Fourier Transform
• The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a very
efficient algorithm for performing a discrete
Fourier transform
• FFT principle first used by Gauss in 18??
• FFT algorithm published by Cooley & Tukey in
1965
• In 1969, the 2048 point analysis of a seismic trace
took 13 ½ hours. Using the FFT, the same task on
the same machine took 2.4 seconds!
Famous Fourier Transforms
2
0 Sine wave
-1
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
300
250
200
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Famous Fourier Transforms
0.5
0.4
Gaussian
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
3 Gaussian
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Famous Fourier Transforms
1.5
-0.5
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
3 Square wave
2
0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Famous Fourier Transforms
1.5
-0.5
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
3 Square wave
2
0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Famous Fourier Transforms
1
0.8
Exponential
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
30
25
20
15 Lorentzian
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
FFT of FID
2
f = 8 Hz
-1 SR = 256 Hz
T2 = 0.5 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t
F t sin 2ft exp
T 2
FFT of FID
2
f = 8 Hz
1
SR = 256 Hz
T2 = 0.1 s
-1
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
14
12
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
FFT of FID
2
-1 f = 8 Hz
SR = 256 Hz
T2 = 2 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Effect of changing sample rate
2
-1 f = 8 Hz
T2 = 0.5 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
70 35
60 30
50 25
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Effect of changing sample rate
2
SR = 256 Hz
SR = 128 Hz
1
-1 f = 8 Hz
T2 = 0.5 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
70 35
60 30
50 25
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Effect of changing sample rate
• Lowering the sample rate:
– Reduces the Nyquist frequency, which
– Reduces the maximum measurable frequency
– Does not affect the frequency resolution
Effect of changing sampling duration
2
-1
f = 8 Hz
T2 = .5 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Effect of changing sampling duration
2
1 ST = 2.0 s
ST = 1.0 s
-1
f = 8 Hz
T2 = .5 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Effect of changing sampling duration
-1
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
200
150
100
50 f = 8 Hz
T2 = 2.0 s
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Effect of changing sampling duration
2
ST = 2.0 s
ST = 1.0 s
1
-1 f = 8 Hz
T2 = 0.1 s
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
14
12
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Measuring multiple frequencies
3
f1 = 80 Hz, T21 = 1 s
2
f2 = 90 Hz, T22 = .5 s
1 f3 = 100 Hz, T23 = 0.25 s
-1
-2 SR = 256 Hz
-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Measuring multiple frequencies
3
f1 = 80 Hz, T21 = 1 s
2
f2 = 90 Hz, T22 = .5 s
1 f3 = 200 Hz, T23 = 0.25 s
-1
-2 SR = 256 Hz
-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Some useful links
• http://www.falstad.com/fourier/
– Fourier series java applet
• http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/
– Collection of demonstrations about digital signal processing
• http://www.ni.com/events/tutorials/campus.htm
– FFT tutorial from National Instruments
• http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/CullingJ/dictionary.html
– Dictionary of DSP terms
• http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCEWWW/Features/McadInChem/mcad008/FT
4FreeIndDecay.pdf
– Mathcad tutorial for exploring Fourier transforms of free-induction decay
• http://lcni.uoregon.edu/fft/fft.ppt
– This presentation